Heat is produced by burning oil or coal in the furnace of a conventional power station, or by nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor. In case of a coal-fired power station, the fuel is first pulverized to a fine powder, which is then pumped in a stream of air through jets into the furnace. The heat is used to boil water circulating through tubes in the boiler/reactor, so creating steam. The steam is then super-heated until it reaches temperatures of up to 600
C (1112
The superheated steam is channeled to a steam turbine, where it is used to drive the turbine shaft at high speed. The steam is then passed through a condenser, where it is turned back into water, thus creating a partial vacuum and so improving the flow of steam through the turbine. The condensed water is pumped back to the boiler/reactor under pressure.
The turbine shaft is linked to a generator, where-in the case of the largest modern generators. Electricity is generated at around 25 000 volts of alternating current. For efficient transmission, the voltage is stepped up by transformers to very high voltages, typically as high as 400 000 volts - otherwise, significant amounts of energy would be lost through resistance in the transmission cables.
In many countries, the output is fed into a national grid system, by means of overhead cables suspended from pylons. A single row of pylons is able to carry the entire output from an average power station. At substations at various points on the grid, the supply is stepped down to suitable levels for distribution to consumers, typically at around the voltages shown in the diagram.
Energy (1 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
In the industrialized world, the vast amount of power that we demand is most often provided by means of electricity - the most convenient and flexible medium in which to transfer power from its source to where it is needed. However, in deciding how best to generate electricity in ever-increasing quantities, we are confronted with an unenviable choice. On the one hand, there is the gradual but inevitable damage to the environment caused by burning coal and oil; on the other, the unlikely but potentially catastrophic risks associated with nuclear power. The principle of electromagnetic induction - on which the electrical generator depends - was demonstrated by Michael Faraday as early as 1831. However, it was not until the mid-1870s that electricity was first used to light streets and public buildings. The first experiments in providing a combined public and domestic electricity supply were made in 1881, when a limited service was made available to the people of Godalming in Surrey, England.
Today, almost all the energy used to generate electricity in the developed world comes from burning coal or oil, or from nuclear fission. In each case the heat produced by the fuel is used to raise steam, which turns the blades of a steam turbine. The turbine rotor is connected to the shaft of an electrical generator. In most developed countries and increasingly in the Third World, the power output is fed into a national grid system.
Most developed countries have extensive and complex supply networks. Power stations are interlinked and centrally controlled, allowing power to be channeled to where it is required and extra stations to be started up to meet peaks in demand.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
close
= False
CaptionText
Power station, conventional
--1-1
-1-11-12
2-11-1-2-
pHplp
lpl((H(H((
pp$(H(($LH
pHpp$(H($p
pH(pl(pl(L
($lpHp
lL$HHl
(($($
((x0p10px
x(x0(xx((
(xpxpx0
0pxpx
$H($HH$$
GCCFGC
!t"D#
&b'8(
SeeLink
SeeAlso
textSize
Caption
textSize
PrintText
RWTIPrintText
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPrintText
PrintImage
YWTIPrintImage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPrintImage
CopyImage
'WTICopyImage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTICopyImage
PreviousPage
WTIPreviousPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPreviousPage
qDWTIMain
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIMain
GoBack
WTIGoBack
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIGoBack
GWTIHelp
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIHelp
Gallery
WTIGallery
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIGallery
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Explorer
WTIExplorer
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIExplorer
]WTIQuit
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIQuit
NextPage
WTINextPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTINextPage
Arrows
ArrowBack
WTIPreviousPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIPreviousPage
ArrowForward
WTINextPage
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTINextPage
A:A;@
0101T1T1T1
0U0101T1T1
T10U0101T1
T1T10U0101
T1T1T1010U
0U0U01T101
0U0U0U01T1
010U0U0U01
p304-2
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 2)
ftsTitle
A 660-MW steam turbine at the Drax coal-fired power station in England.
Energy (2 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Pollution and efficiency
The burning of fossil fuels in power stations leads to the emission of several by-products that are potentially damaging to the environment. Fly ash, which results from burning pulverized coal, is effectively removed by passing the flue (or waste) gases from the furnace through an electrostatic precipitator - a series of electrically charged plates that hold back the tiny particles of ash.
However, other by-products pass straight out of the chimney and into the atmosphere, including sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, major causes of acid rain, and carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse effect. Some of the biggest power stations are already being fitted with burners to minimize the production of nitrogen oxides, and major coal-fired stations are likely to include desulfurization equipment.
At present, less than 40% of the energy released by the burning of fuel is finally transmitted as electrical energy. The remainder is dissipated as waste heat. The efficiency of small stations near cities can rise to nearer 80% if the energy that would otherwise pass uselessly into the environment is used to heat water, which is then piped into a district heating scheme, serving radiators in blocks of flats and offices. Such schemes are already in operation, notably in Iceland and the USSR.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
xxTyxUxxTyxy\y
UxxTxTxxTxt0yx,
$0P,t,PPQLT,y
xxUxU
TyxUxPxyPx
]txTx
,p,1TTx0T,xTx
Qp0PTtxTt
0yxxUTP
UPUP0x,PPUUP0,L,
T$P(ttTt0
TyxTxTt
P(x0TP(t1PT
PTtxxPxT
PxT,L,,p,P
,L,xTt
1PPPTx0,
$xPx,(,P
,L,PLT
x,UTPp,,x1t,P,
TPL$Ppttx
x0t0,
PtTPLy,T$T
P,,xP
]-\QTy1Hy,T1
PxyPUP(0P0,,xT
x0P,T,xT
Tyxy]
yTy,PTy0
0P(1xT
PTTy]P1P0tTyPUTy\
TTxUxT
TTUx,txU
,xy,x
,,P,t
L,Q-0T-x
1,P(y
TP(U,,
L1x1x
UPTTUxUP
H,P,x,x
,t0,p0,TUt0t0y,
]HT,,
xUxy0txTTTT
yTxUxyx]
(TP,Tt0xTUPTP
x]PUTy
tx0xUxT
H0UP$
xTxTy,P,P
UyxTyT
Txy,xx
,xTy,
,PPy0y01ty1xPTU\t
$t-T1
YxUyTT
y\tUyP
y0x,x,L1
x\y0t0,
tTP(P
,PUxP,
t(PUPTTPLTPTxTy,
xUxy]u
,H]x1PyPxPPU,xUx,L,xxU
TUxUtTP1P
TxTxPP,$
T$xUPU
1TUx]y
x,xTTy,UPL1x1PU
Ty0x1
LPx\yxT0
tTxtTxTx
UT,P)x0P,0yTx
TyTxP10P0
$xTtTx
xTPp,x
,PTyTUP
,t0yP9t1-Px1t0t
t]yxUu
Q(P0yt
PyTyxUxt
UxxPy0T,1tx-x0Q0
$Ty,UxUx]
1xP1xTtP0,
tPpt(
,L0U,t0tT
,UPP$,
xQ0TuTP(T,y,x
tPT-,xT
yTx]yy
0UTy,y,p,Tx1tUP
TxxUx
Qxx-TxUTxTuy
TPTxx0t0yx,x\x0PTP0y
0xxyT
1t0y\P0y
T0xQTy
TxU0xT
TQLU,tTT,L
$PyTyTTyxx
TyTxx,xTU\x$
xx$xUxUTPxUtxPPUxx,
T$Utyx,
]UTUy
PP0t1xUx,T-L,xyP0
P0x1xy
t]xTu0yPy0x00xyTx]yt0
y,txP
x0yTx
\xyx]
UxUxx,xTTQ,ytTx,t1,(,
H,,,$H,H,
]x,P(P
P(P,(P
0u0Tx1tT
PT1TU
Y,UTx
\PUtPU0,x,UTPTTP
,yTy,
tTT]xT0TyT
,,yPx
$yTyyxT,
MPx1T
Px0yxTPU
xUT1tU
0T1U0y
0$]\UYy0
]y90T
0t0UP0P
yUPPx0y
1Tyx]xxxT
T-U1UTUUYUx1UTUT
yTy\y1tTU,PUx
x0y1t
,yxTyPyTT
1UTUy0y11
xTU0yPT$
TT1PTy1U
UxUx]y1x\tyTxTTx
,yxUxyT
y1TUUTUTyU
0xUUT
1xUTxT
,TTxQ,
0xyTy
Tx]xx
UT1x]TU
Ux0yy00y01
Tx0U]
Uy\x]
TU0yPxP]
,xxUxTt1
xPt(ttTt
Pt0y0PUTUT,0y
UxyPyUTtT
TxTT,
Ty]xy
y0UTU]y0yUT
1xTTTQTT
x]xxy1TP
y010xU0
TyTyTy
1TUy\U,
Txt]tT
TUx8yx
TP,x$
\xx0T\
T-tTyTP1
]xTyTx0U
Tx,]xPTPyPp
U$0Ty
U0yUUx1
]]1TTUU
T,xyx
yTxTxTx,,
]P,U,
1Tt]xUyx\
x0TUx1x
Ux0Ty0
\Px,yTy1P
0xxUx
Ux\UyTy1UTU
UxyUxyy0t1xTy,yxT
$TQUxTx
TxTxTxTPTx
1xTyxTx
,P0PTtP
y0UTUx1
y0x1TU1xTU
(yPu0xT
PUTUx
TUUT1x\U
yyTyUxyT
,T0PUPUx1-L
$$,x0
9PTTUxy
1x9y0
UxTuTt
,P0tUx1,P0PP0,
yxx]xy
TUxUU1yTU
yUUy]
UUP0T1,TUP0U
y,t01
]y9TUy0
0yxTt
T]t0x,TxT,PTUPx
T,(xT
UT1y1
0x0PT
,y\yTUUx,y
y1-,P
Ty0U,
xx]y]y]x]yyYUy0xUUT
PxUxy0Ux
TxTxu
PTTy$
yxxyTxy
PUTyx
y]UUx
]yy01
0x0TT
\PUy\yT
UTyTT1UTU-
,UPT,L
)P1xP,0yxU
y]Ty]x
}Ty1yUTUT1UTy
P(T0-
yUxxUxU
PTyxT
UyUx]x1
TTy,t
PPyxy\
0y\U0
PHyTx]
]x]UTU1x0t0UTUUTU
]T]UU
TTTy0x0UTU]x
x1-]Uy0y,tU\
ULTP0
tTx]L
UU01xTTU0x1y\
]yU1x
yT0xUT
t\xUxP
Q0]y]y]x
x9xUP10xyY
,U,P(P(
T1yY1UT
UxyY1
0y0PUyxUU
0y]UT
]yTU9y1xU
Yy]TTx1UTy
T1yyTx
xPxt]QxT
Tx1xy1
UT1yTU1yx1y0U]xTx0
yPU\x]xU\U
0x]x]UUT0
yUUTU-x
TyxUUTx,
PLt1x0yTt
,x]tp0
0ty\y]
TU]x1x1
TTU]y
0y0U0x
UU]y8xUy0T
Ty8uTUTyy
-T]xy]y]x
Ux1y0TTyUt0
x,yTyY]yx
1T1yy1x,UTTUP
t1TPUTyTH
PUtxxT
0y\UTy1yU
yyTy\yU
YxUyUTTyTx0TP
TUP0y
\y]xy
1U1x]Uy,
]y]yx0
x-UP,
x0xTyx]
9x,,(00
y\yTyy
PUyUTUTTyUT0,
yU\yU
T1xy1$UTt
y\xUt
TTyxT
0xUPU
T1TUU]y
,y,yTxU
xUyTTUYUT
$UtxUx
y|Uy]
]xUU0xyxUQ
y,yx,
0yUy0
]T,1TU
,x,xx]
TTtxTxT
yT1yTxT
y\yTx1xP
,Tu\yx]x
PPUyx
Ut(P,
xTxUx
-Ux]y]
Ux\yyT
xTQxTxxUyP
,LP(T
,t0,xUt\xTx
,P(,y\
(,T-P,(P
,pTt\
Txx0yx
0yUxyTxUt
xTxxt0t,1P
,tL,,0
TxxPU
(x,xTt
,PUxPx1xy,
PLxyT$
tUT,PTy,
TP(P(P
y,LTxyTy
p,yTyt1tUx,yy
0yPLUPTUTx,
$(,P(,,(,
$,txU
PxPxy
LxxUxU
PUxPL,LTyUP,
$,,(P,L,
,L0xPx,
UxyTT0$]
,0P0tTP0x
T]yTP
-Ptx0xxTy
,y]y]
P,tTP,,yTy0P
P(P,,L
0yx,x
,TTtUPTx
yyTxx0P
TxyTxyx,M0UPx,
TPTxx,x,
0xUPy
x,xt(
TyTTUxtTP(
1xUx]PPUTP
Tyxy]
Uy0y0
tPUTtTP
TyTy]y
1x}0y1UTy
0TPU,
|xxTx
TyUxyTxy,x,UT
]yUxT-TT
xTt(0t0yUt
$t,PTUy,
q1TP1
xy,pT
,t(PTtpTtTT,
]H,PLP,p,P]P0t,L,P(t,t(x
P(x0y0
pTPTP(
TxUxPTPUP,L
,PTx,p1,y1xTx
x1P,y,
y0y0Pt
t(TP,PPP
PTPPPLPTyxUP
,,x0Pp
PTQ0TTT
(PPP(T0
xTPUyP,
-yTT,)T,
$Tx0P(0tTxUt
,P,1T,(PT
L,0x,
PxTyxxU
TxTyxx0t0T,L
,x0P(,t
P),x,t1$t1PU
x$pTxUx
UyTyyQP,x
PTTyTUT
,L,TTP,t0
x,pUx,
L,yx0y,
,xxUy
TTUQ\T
0t0tTPTyPP
P(,T,,L,(x0,x
x1xTtx1,L
,x0t(yTUx
P0PL,P
L0P,T,
TPTy,tTT,
t1xUy
]Tb0y
yTy,P
$PT]tTP
yTy,T,(Q
xPTTPTyxUx,x
xPPT,(0tt,L0,(x,
$TPTPTy
P1xyU
UTUxTx1TUP0
$Tt,0t0x]x0uUxU
P(PUt
xTTTxyPxUTy
,p0TU0
y0yy0y,UTP,x
,x0,P,,u1x0
yTyTQTP-0PP
H,PT,p
H,(P,(x,
P0t0PTx
Uy\x]TUy1x0U$]x
,(T,P0t0Q,
Utxx,xP
PTxTP
xPxTxTyU
-xTuT
,LP(P(
UTUUxy-TyU
,PUxy
xTTT1T,10
$PTt0y]
x,xyxTyP
T,Ty\x
yTyyTxU
M0P(t,
TxTT,P
TuTxUxyTy
]x,y0P,L,PTx,X0
yx,$,
$TPPtPL
(0x,yT
xTxPL,
x]UTUH,,TP0T
xUxyTx1x
P(H,UU
$,L,,x\
yxTUy
0yTyTxyT
Uxy\y1TP$
t0xxT
UyxTxxUxxy]
$P,xT
txQx,tPy,
,TPUPyyT
xUxx,L
x0xTxUT
]yxy]T
,L,xU
\uxT0P
UT1yP,0Q
Uyx,x
UxyTP
]xyxU
TTyUP,p
TyxTUt(
t,yxxUx]y
xTyx]xT
UxUxy0t0
yTyxUt0P
yTyxxT
TTyTx
UxyTx-t
$Uxt,
(yxxUy
yxTxx
$,Ptx,t,PPL,
PyTPT
\P0,t1x,P(xx
xyyxTx
UxPL,
,yTP1T,$
U$,L0,,$x,$P
TtxTTP
]xx\yT
yTxPxtUxT,
xt]t(0
txUxPT
UyyxTyx
]y1xy
$y\yTx,
xUxxUxTyxUx
0HP0P,
TPxUP]P
x,-TU
xUxyx
xPyxUxUxxTxPU
PxTxy
yPytxtTx,u
UH0,xT
xUxPUxT$
PLPPT
TxPUPyTtxUxx
1H,,,
$Txx,x0P
Tt0T$
xUxTy-T
xTyxTUTxPxyTTTx
xUxUU0
HTtPL0
PxxTx
tx1tTPP
xxTxUP
,U,,x
UyTyyTUPy0t0
t,tp0
y,yxx
1Tx0xxx,$
xUy\P$
TT0,x
Tux]PT
xUyTxTQxTtTP,t
,xPPL,
x0yTx
$$0]uYyPP-
,x,xxTx
TyxyTPyx
$tHt,
yPx,yPUT
UPTx1y,T
t(xxPyyT
1yUxTUTyT
t0tLTP
xx,P(xT
PLTxP
TTyxU
yTTTyxPxUx
x1Tx]xU
x0tpx
x0tTPt
1xxPTPT
]xy8yPyxPyxx
\x,0P0
,xTP0
yTyUxuTxP
yxyUy0xQ
PTy0T
0t0yTx-x$LTxPTP
,pTyx
Utxy\
TTUx0y,
$,t,P
]xxUxT
xxPUxTxy,
UxPyxP
yTyxTUTxx
TxTxUx\t(
TyTyT
]yxxUPTP
$xPpPP$
UxTt$
\txTy
yTyxUyT
,(P,P
H,UT-
x]yxTyxTQ
UxyPyTyTP,
PLP,x,x
Tx0xxTP
x0,0x,TxPp,pP
UxTxtT
t]yT1xPT
txPx,
]xP]tT0
Pp0xTy0P
TtTyTt
$xyUT
xxUxQx,p
H,yTxP
xyxUy\y
QTTxUx
xTtyT
xTyxxyTtP
y0yTU
xUyTt0x
$$$,L
UxxUx1
TyTy0
,yTxxx
0yTyTQTxPP
,$xQx,
Tyx]xUyx
xTxx-T
TyxyTyUyxTy
PtHPpT
Ux1x]t
xtTxx]
Pty,U0
xUyx0yxUxUU
TxTx,
UxUxx,
PTHPH,H
\yTPU
xUxTUx
ytTxxT
xyUy,
tTxTyP
xyTTUx
TxyUx
UPUPT
xTy0ttT
xxxUx,xT
PtxTt
TyTUUT
TyUxUP
yTy,y
xTxUtxT
]tPPT
x1xxTx
,(yTxy]U
x-ytx]
]$xUtT
1x]tLT
yUxUPTy
TxxQx
x,tTx
0xQxTP
Utl\y
Txx,TUx$
TyT1xxPxy,yx,p
HTPTPL
TyTxy
xTtyTU,
,M1ty0,y1tUPU
,yyxP
UxyyxTyyTxy,x
0P,L0
xTxTyT
,xPTTuxPxxxPx,
,xTxTtUxT
xUxPxtx
0t1yTP
HTtxUt
PTP,PTt(xPx1
xyTyx
tUP0t0PL
LxxUxT
xPxtT
T,tLP(P(P,
x,yTx
PxTP]y
0HxPxtPx
,x1t0$(
UxTy,pT
PL,,LP
PyTyxxTx
Ty,tT
$,P(x,
PpUtxTTTy
xy]$xTtT
yTxyTyTxPx0u0PT
UxPy0
|Ttx,P
x,txTxxx
tTyPyTx,
PxyPU(UPL
yTt0tT
yPxUxx
xUyTy
TtPTUt,
0x]xyT
,xTxy
TPU,t0
tT,UTyxxU
UxxxUtTPLt
x,UUTPyTxxT,
xUx1tTP
PMtUPP(P,L
Qx]x,]
xPxUtTxUx
TtTxUxtUx
\y0tt(xtxP
xtLtHtxPy,H
xTxttT
Ttxx1xUxtxPUT,PLP(
$0PLT,UTtxTyxTyP1xPT
xTx\xtTP,
$,(t,p
,,$,L0,$
xT$$$
L,,p,p,x$
,Ppx,PPPL
P(x,x
$,(,PTPL,0t$0
y,t(t0P
tUtuTx
xPy0t
tTHPT$t
,yPpTtx,T
x\yxTx,
]$Qx0xP
x,L,PTt(P
xUxx,]
(P(-U
LxyUPTtxyx]
xPxx,x,
tTtxU
tt0t(xP
H,P0$
PLTtTt,t
P,xUxtT
x,xt0x0P
TxxUT
xxxTxUt
$1Tt])TPPTyTT
xU$UP
\yPxtTx,PL
$xPL1t
lxPpU
Ux0x,
,pTPL
xPx,xTTtT
TxQxPyTuH,H,,t(P,P,P
P($,P0$
PxxPxPP
0,$tLx
TttUx
UT1U,$,
L1PT,1PTUx1yxUT
yTxyU
Ty]xx
y,xT,LT
xUx,U
xTtTx
xTxyPxTPPLPPTP($xPtTt
yTx,-H,
(P(x$
$,tTPL
0t(PLP
9UPyT]1x1]
TtpTy
,x,xt
t(,Lt
ltPpl
Pxy\xUx
PpTtp,
,y1P0
$TP0t
,yyPP
xPyPL
P,L,xTx-
]t(0x,P
PP,LP
P(t,(,
P(PPx
tltltp
Uy0xT
P(,P,
P,p0x
x1-P-,H9]
P(tTxP
,H](,
HH$PPPp
]T(PtTt
Ttt,px
$$xPtLtT
,PT$t
PTty,
(xUx0
xPP$H
$ltPy
pUtTx
PMtP$T
$x0,t0
P($,HTTx\t($
LxtPx,Ttt
(tTP0P
0,$Ux
LTx]x
P,L,P$
xU0x,
P$,P(P
L,y0t
(P1PT,p0tLP,T
tt(P,L
yxUTU
xTP,pP$,
xUxUP
TH$PH
xUxP1
Txt,,
,(PLT$P
xyyTyx
p,TPTP
T$P,tL,,x,L
(t(PL,p,$P
x,PH,PP$
tLtLtPp
1$xHT
t(tL,t
,pTy,
x\x]x
xTyH,(
P0H0Px
PTTt(xUx$$$
1xUPTP
t(P,0$
PL,$y
xTTHTxTxP
x](tUtTQtT
P0TP(x
P0tTxxTt-
Tt,$,U9
(PP(tP0t(
UxTt(tLxx
Uy9x$
,(xTP
UP,x,
Lt,L,T,P(x
,tLPP
t]L,P
xT,Lx
P(PTP(P
xl$Ut
PPTPTx
Ux,]P(
(x,(P,,P
-TyPT,P1y,
0x-0$x
TtxxP
x,xP0,,p
,L,P,,L
xTx,x
,tTTx
$H,PMx
,p0y,T
,,,0P
x]|x,
0t(xP,$,P
QH,1x
P($TPPx
PxTtxU
\xTP(
]tx$,
x\tUPU
$$$$,,
]x\tx
tLPTP
PTyTP
0T]TP
,(txPx
,(P(,
P,1tUx
ptTyPxTH,t(,PP(PUTt0P0,M,,L$,P,
0t0$T
L,pPxTtTPTxx0tt)xPPLP,p,t(t,L,TP(0$x
TP,uH,p,LP-,,,x,x
xHytPp0,x0PTx,TPp0P00t,L,,L
UTP0x
0x$0U
UxUtUx
xxTtx,xPP,LytLy
TxUTtUtx,tTtxPx0tx,p,LT
y,P1PTP
]txxxxPxPtxLtTxpTPLP,p,P,
zUy2Q
LUxPM,PL
PUpx1
$,,p,L
$,H,Lb
PPT,x
1t]yxxxTxTxutPtPPpPt0y]xy
TPt,PL
$,P$ty\QT
,PT0,
,LTPT
VQMTUTQPtQ
xtTyTyxTxuxT
xtU,pPt
$xy\xP
),PUtTx,
TxPLtTtTxPtTPLxP
$,x,,
xyTx,
UxuTtxUx,P0t(,
PtLUT,
QxTyxY
t$,p$,Px,x$
Uy]Q$,y1
Ttxt(,tLx,xPLT$
\tTyTy
,LP,x,tT,x(P]TxT
2P,LT
PPtxtTTPpx
TytUxQxxtUP
0tx,$
9,yPxTtTtuT
UxyxPxPTuPpTt
,xPT$
xPPpTtxPL
$P(t,pHU,$x,tHUt,
t(xPy
TyTxx
xTtLxtUtxxPyxT$P(t
LP(,P,
,L$0Ht$P(
xPL0P0
yPxtyy
tyTxutUxPx,txTtTtTxtPx
$t($$,$
p,$,tH
,(P,(,,LTPpU
TyxHPL
0,LPL
yt,LPLH,t
x,p,,x
PTy,x
,xTTPUTt0PT,tLtP,Ly
,,Lx,PLt,P(
P\ytL
,,1x,t$
TP,LT
$,xx,P
1Tx$,
1PLUPt
Ht(t(yTt,H,,H,LP
UPtLT
-TTy,
P(t,(
PLt,p0xTP0P,t0
Tt,LH,(xPp,xTx
tPPH,
,T,p,t
Hy0yTxT
xPLxl
xUxPx
HPxtL
THPxTxx
xtxU|
$,L$$
pPtpPxH$1P,PT
,]HPL,
PxH,$
HtLxP
TPxUtP
,y,,(
P(,$$
Hp,PHx
ttTxxH
U]xU$
0yTxT]
]p,LPP(
xTxxl
$,P,$
$,HPL,$
$,y]x
0tLT,HT
PT,x,t(
yTyU00T$Px
$,1P0
t,t$PpxP
P,TP,LT
01T-PP
Ut0ttT
xyTT]t0t
xTP$0tTP
p0U,y
TTy0x
H,PLH,
p304-3
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 3)
ftsTitle
The pressurized-water reactor (PWR). A PWR is essentially a closed loop in which the combined coolant and moderator - ordinary ("light") water - is pressurized to about 150 atmospheres, and pumped through the reactor core. The core, made up of fuel rods containing pellets of enriched uranium dioxide, heats the coolant to around 325 C (617 F), which then passes through a heat exchanger, where it transfers heat to a separate reservoir of water. This water is vaporized to steam, which is piped off to drive the turbine.
Energy (3 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Nuclear power
In terms of electricity generation, the only difference between nuclear power stations and conventional stations is the means of raising steam to drive the turbines: the coal- or oil-burning furnace is simply replaced by a nuclear reactor. However, this entails a whole industry of its own.
Uranium-235 (U-235) is the form (or isotope) of the element uranium used as the fuel in most nuclear reactors. However, it is only present in tiny quantities - less than 1% - in mined uranium. The rest is made up of uranium-238. For many reactors, the proportion of U-235 has to be increased by a complex and very costly process known as enrichment. The fuel - enriched or natural uranium as required - is packed into fuel rods, which are placed in the core of a nuclear reactor.
The nuclei of U-235 atoms sometimes break apart when struck by neutrons, in a process known as nuclear fission. As the nucleus splits, two or three more neutrons are released. These go on to bombard other nuclei and may cause them to split, thus setting off a chain reaction. The reaction is essentially a controlled version of what happens when an atomic bomb explodes. To increase their chance of fissioning U-235 (rather than being captured without fission by U-238), the neutrons are slowed down using a moderator such as graphite. So much energy is released as the fuel is fissioned that a single ton of uranium is equivalent to 25 000 tons of coal.
The vessel in which the fuel rods are placed is filled with a coolant. As nuclei split, energetic fragments fly off and are brought to rest in the surrounding coolant, so causing its temperature to rise. The coolant is constantly circulated through the core, so preventing the core from overheating and at the same time acting as the medium by which heat is channeled away from the core to raise steam. The nuclear reaction can be slowed down or stopped altogether if control rods containing a material that absorbs neutrons, such as boron, are lowered into the reactor core.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Pressurized-water reactor (PWR)
1-1-1--
1y9y91y11
y0--x-10-0
-0-0--
x1y01(-0
10)01(-0x(
(-((-
((-(-0)
xy0y0
xyx(yy9xy
yy00xy1x1
xyx00x-0-0
-(0x00-00-
x0(--(
1-01-1
qqy)\
10U101
Txy1x
x0((q
1199U9
qpp)x
(pq)0
x)pq(0
x(pq(0
pql(x
x(pq$0
$lq$0
x)pp(0
lH$H$l
l$$H$$l
lplpm(
$plmpll
$H$H$
llmll
(llHlml
$lH$HH$$
)H$$%
y0U0Z
$)$%$)
%HH$H$H
1-1-1
H(%$$H
0-0-10
0-1-0
%$$)$
-0010
00q0y
x10xx
UT0)x
0x0x0(
01T0)
x(1xy
1((100(
(1x(x0
00y0)
x0y(y
$(I$$(%
xy0p0x
%$$(H%$
qx(0p(
0(010
$H$%$$L
0xqxp0p
$)H$)$
0y(py(
1(0p1
xL0px
xyp0p(
%$L%(
0x(xqx(
xTqpx
0pyp0
xpTpx(
%$%$(%
0pxpxU(
xxpxx(
(H$%(
pxp0pxp
)l)(H$
xpLpx
xpxLpx
xxqx(
q($)($$(
(pxpLpxL
)$$)$I
pxpxp
(H$%((
xppLxpp
(p)(%L
pxppxxpx
pxL0y
)$l(%(%$
p()($
1--1--1-
pHp$(
$pH(H$($
pplppx
xpp(x
(($(($L
($((H
pp((-
1-1--1-
-1--1-11--
0-0-0110
110-1
0--0--
Y11-0
1--0-1U
U]Uy1
11x10
-1--12
00-1(
p304-4
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 4)
ftsTitle
The advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR). In an AGR, the heat exchangers are located within the pressure vessel itself. The carbon-dioxide coolant is pressurized and heated up to 600 C (1112 F) or more as it is pumped through the core, which is made up of fuel rods filled with enriched uranium dioxide.
Energy (4 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Types of nuclear reactor
The first commercial nuclear power station, opened in 1956 at Calder Hall in Cumbria, England, was a magnox reactor. Magnox reactors are so called because their fuel - natural (unenriched) uranium - is clad in an alloy of magnesium and aluminum called magnox. They are cooled by carbon dioxide gas. In the 1970s a new generation of much bigger gas-cooled reactors was developed in Britain - the advanced gas-cooled reactors or AGRs. Meanwhile, the Canadians have developed reactors that use 'heavy water' (deuterium oxide). Because heavy water (unlike ordinary water) absorbs few neutrons itself, reactors using it as moderator and coolant can operate with unenriched (and thus cheaper) fuel. The economy in fuel costs is offset, however, by the additional expenditure involved in producing heavy water.
Today, the most widespread nuclear power plants are light-water reactors. The coolant and moderator - ordinary ('light') water - is readily available and cheap, but the uranium fuel has to be highly enriched. In the case of boiling-water reactors (BWRs), the water is allowed to boil to make steam, which is less efficient at cooling and moderating the reactor, and so must be prevented from building up in the reactor core. In pressurized-water reactors or PWRs, the water must remain at even higher pressure than is required in a BWR, so that it can reach useful temperatures without boiling.
The world's reserves of uranium will not last for ever, but one sort of reactor could make them go a lot further - the fast breeder reactor or FBR. The drawback of fast reactors is that they require the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel both to extract plutonium (its main fuel) in the first place and to recover it from the uranium blanket. Reprocessing is a highly complex and expensive operation - as well as being unpopular with environmentalists. Nevertheless - and in spite of funds for FBR programs generally being cut back - prototypes exist, including one at Dounreay in northern Scotland, a large one on the River Rhone in France and one in India.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Advanced gas-cooled reactor
;;:CC;CC
;BC:CB;CB;
C:C:C:;;:;
;:;;C;C
;B;CB;;
;B_:;
:;;::
_:;::;
:;:;:
;:;:;
:;;C;;:;
:C;^;
G;;C;
;:;C:
;::;:;:;
2BC_:;;
B;:;;
:;;:;:;:
;;:_C:;
;:C;:;
;:;::
C;_:;
C:;;B;
;::;:
C;:;_
;:;::;
C;:C;f
::_:;
;:;::;:;
B;;::
C;g;:;
;;::;:
;;:C^;:;
;::;:
;;C;:^;:
B;C;1
;BC:;
:;:;:
:;;::
:C;:C
:;:;;:;
:;;:;
;:;B^;;^
:;;_:;
;;::;;
;_::;
:;;:;
::;:C
B;;_;C:;
::;;:
;:;:;
:;;:_
;;:C:;:;
;::;:_:;::
;::;:_
:^;:C^;:
:;;:;
::;:;
:;:;:
:;::_:;
:;f;:;:;;
^;:-9
;:;::;;:
)C:_:;C
;::;:;
C;^:;B
:;:;;
:;:;:^;
:;;:;:_
::_;;
-B;;g:;:;
;::;:_
:;:;:
;::;g
;;::;:C;
::_C:;g:;;
;:C::;^:
^;::_
^;:;:
C:_;:
^::;:;
_:;:_
:;::;:_::;
;C;^;;
:;B_::B
:;;::;:;B
;B;;^
:;;C;
:;f;:;;:
;::;::
C;;:;^:C
:;:;:
:;;::
:;:_:
;::g:C;_
::;_:
3:;::
;C:B:
CC:;:;
:;:;::
;:_;C;-
;::;^:;
f;::g:
C_;:C;^:
;;:;:
;::_::
;:;^;::
;::;;_
:;:_:;:;;_
:;:;:
02;;:
;;::;;:;
;:_::
_;:^;::;
W:;;:
;:;:;;_
y1CC:C;C:C
B;C;B;C;B;
;C;B;;CC:;
C:;C:;CC;;
;:^:;:
;::;_;:
::^::
;::;:
;:_::;^;:
B;2;:
;:;:C:
C:;:;BC:CC
CC: ;1
::;::
:Y::Y9:9:
11010U00
-011T-10T(
^2:2::2::2
::Y::
Y:2:^:2:2:
2:V:1
:Y:2:2::2:
2::2:2:V
:Y::2
V:2:2
:;:Y:2
Y2Y::2^Y:
:^2:^:2:^:
:2:^::2^::
^::^::2::V
2^::2:
:2::2B
00(0(0
(x0x0xx
0T0(0
Y:2:^:2:2
^:2:^::
2::2::2^
2:V:2
::^::Y
::V:2
:2::2:
^2::Y:
:2:Y::^
Y:2:2:
:2:V:2:
:2:Y2:
11x1y11y
11y0y
0y11y1
1y1y1y
y1y1-1y1y1
Y11y1-y
y110y
1y11y0
(0-1-)
0--01-01
0(--1
--0--0-1(-
1(0--1
(Z-10
y1y1y11x
y1y0y
y11y1y1
y1x1x1
y01y1y-0
0yy1y
010y1
0y1y10
0y-x-
x1y-0y10y1
011x1y-yx1
0y1x20y
0yy1yx1
y1y1xy1x-
1x1y11xyy1
y-1x10y101
y1xy)
yy0yy
yx-x-xx1
x1-11
0-1x1x
xyyxyy0
0yy0y-U11y
1y0x1y11
y1y1ypx0yx
yy0y1(1y
1;:^:
-Ux0)x1(y
1xp1xx1y
y11x1xy1x1
x01y1(yy0
xyyxU
1:29:
p1yTx1yx1y
y)x1x
y(yy(
x1yxy-T
1)0y-0
xy10yq-
xyq1x0y0
(yx11xyy0
xx-Tx1xp10
1py100T1y
1y011xy
0yyxyyT1y
q0py1py)x1
-y1qx0y0xy
yxyxy
xy1xyp1
q00y1xy
(x0p1
y(y(x0y$
-xy0y
)y(xyy0yx
yp1p(
)y01p0yp
1qxyy(1
0xy1yx
xy1y0pyxyq
-x(y(x0x1
(ypxyx(x
ypxy0yxy
(yyxUypyy
Ty1p0xyy((
xq0p1x
0qy0y(x
pyU0x
py1qT)y(1
(yxxqxT0q
xxpyxq0ypx
UxxpxxLqx(
qxM(p((
(xqx(p0qx
yx(yx1pT(
1xypxpy1x
pxyxU)9
xUxxyqxx
(xyT(xpxyp
xq0xyxyxTq
xpxxyxy
yx0qx)x
(xxyxx
yx1xx1xy0x
qxxqxyTxy
py(pxUx1px
1p\q0ppypx
0qx)x(p0px
yxq0xp(
py1xp
xxyxxypxyx
xqx1xpUypq
00q0pxyLyx
qTxpyxqxpp
TqxpqpT)xp
)xq0qLxqpU
x)px)
xp1x)0p(
(yxqT0qx(
x1xp1xppxy
pxx0xqTpy0
px(yxpp
(yxTqxqxp
qTxqxx)xqp
Upxxqxpypx
ppxx)xxp(p
0q0p0
)py(ppxq
xpxyp
xL1pxq0ppy
0q(p0qxq0x
y0xqx1px1x
(xypxLx
yxpqpTxqx(
xxpy()xTq(
xqLypqxp)x
)xqx(
xxyyxqT
pTp1x(ypyp
1xpUx1xLxy
pqx(xpqppy
(qxpyxqTp
yxxqxpTqxq
(xppqppTqx
p0pxMxpxp0
xLqpx0
0xq0p(x
pypL)x
p(xxpq0xq0
UpL1xLypy
(xqxL1xxM(
(xTqxpxpy
xLqxqpqpTp
qLyxx(qpx
yppqLpypxx
(xqpp1p
0yppyxy
)xxypx
qx)pq0qpxp
qLqxxpyxTp
yx0pypTqpx
)xypTypyp
pypLpx(xqx
LpypxqxpUp
xy0qx(p
TxyyUxyT
)px0qp0
pTxyp0
)xpxpTpxx)
p0pxLq0xqp
qxMxqxpy
(pxpqpx
LypxpxqLyp
pLyppyxpxL
xpxyp
yxq(xqxp
(xqpL1p
yxqpMpypqp
y(1pxxpxxp
TqxxMxyxx(
(ypypxqpx
Lyppxxpqxq
qppqxpxL
ppqxLqxqp(
qppqLp
pxTxq
x0xp(ppxLy
(pUpqxqxUp
xLpyx
xypqxMpx
xpypx
pxpxpxypyp
pqpyxpp
xpxpx
(M(0(x
qxLqppq
pLxxpypq
xUpypUpxpx
(xLxxpqLx
xyxq(ypxT
xpxpLpx
Hyxqpqxpq
xpp(qx
qxxqxpT
(xppxTqxp
qTqxpMxxp
Tpypxqx
pxppT
pLxpp
pxppypyp
pUppxLpx
pLpyx
qxpxq
xqxppx
xpLppx
ppLpxpM
(ppqLpyxL
ppxy((
pxppx
xqxp)
xpxpLp
xqppLpyL
ppqppLx
$pxppTpqp
qppxLqp
ppLqpL
LppLpxp
xpxxL
pLqppxx
Lpypp
qLppxp
xppxppq
p(p(p(
ypqppy
ppxppx
H$HH$HH$$
llpll
pllppl
lpllp
pp(pp(p(
p)(p)p
01101--1
--1-1--
$(ppl
((--1
p(p($
($p$HH
p304-5
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 5)
ftsTitle
The fast breeder reactor (FBR). In an FBR, the neutrons released from the highly enriched fuel (uranium-235 and plutonium) convert a surrounding blanket of uranium-238 into more plutonium - the reactor 'breeds' plutonium. The reactor is 'fast' because no moderator is used to slow down the neutrons in the core. The coolant is liquid sodium, which is efficient at conducting heat away from the compact core and capable of dealing with the high temperatures involved. The coolant flow is isolated from the steam generator by a second, entirely independent sodium flow.
Energy (5 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Nuclear safety
In April 1986 a nuclear power plant at Chernobyl in the Soviet Union suffered the world's worst nuclear accident. The reactor - a design of BWR peculiar to the USSR - was operated in such a way that water was allowed to boil to steam inside the reactor. This led to a reduction in cooling and a build-up of pressure. Finally steam reacted with the graphite moderator in the reactor core, producing hydrogen, which exploded. Thirty-three people died of radiation sickness as a direct consequence, but many more throughout northern Europe may ultimately suffer cancer as a result of exposure to the radioactive cloud that escaped.
As a result of Chernobyl and another costly, though less serious, accident at a PWR on Three Mile Island in the USA, many countries have slowed or halted their nuclear programs. Italy stopped building nuclear reactors just as the first one was being completed, and Sweden has decided to abandon its extensive nuclear program. France and the USSR, however, continue to build new nuclear plants, and Britain has decided to go ahead with a PWR at Sizewell in Suffolk. More are planned, but all arouse intense public debate.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
The fast breeder reactor (FBR)
;::;:;:;;
;C:gB;;B
B;C :
;C:C;
C:;CC2:
C CC CC;g
CCg;C
;_BC;C
;C:;C:
1C;_C^C
;B;;B
;:C2C;:C
C;C:;
C G
C;B;:;
:;;:C;
:g:;C;;
C;B;;BC-
;C^;;B
;;B;;B;
x10y11
x1y8y1-y
;:C;f;C
C^;;B
C;;_:
;B;B;B;B
;B;B;
C;C^C:C
1;B;:;C;;
;C:;;
2 ;:_B;
2C:C_C;
;C:;:
:;:;;
B;:;C
:C_;BC
C;B_C2
C:C:;B;2
;:;BC
;CB;:
-B;:;
B;g;;
:C;:C
C21:2
?CCBC;
:Cg;C
2B;;^C
;f;CB_;
2;:;:_B
101-110
2; ;C
;;^;C:
;B_C;CC
:;;BC:_
:;B3BC;
:;;:;^
C; C
;:C_;B
C;:;:_;
BCC B;
;BC;f;
:C;:;;^
;:;;1
(2CB;
C;:C:
BC;C
;:C::
;C:CBV
B;C:C
-11-1
;;C:gC)C
yxyxxyxyy
xyxyxxyxyx
1x1p1xy0)p
1x1x1p10)0
)0)0)p1
x-01(101
-10-0
(1T-(--1(
(-110-00-
--1-1-
xx(yxyx
yxx)xyxy(1
xq0)x)x1(1
(y0)0)x
3C_C;B;;C
:;B;:
C; C:
:C :C_:;;
;;:;C C
; ;B; :
B;B ? :
;:;:;:
;:^;::;::
B;;C
:;C:g;
:;::2
:;;:;:;
B;B;CC
;:2::;
^;:^:
::^;:
;:;:;:^
C;CB;;C;
:C;;B;CB
:^::;::
::^;::
^:;:;
: B;;:CC
;;:;B;_
;::;:
;;C: ;
;;:^:;
3:;::
2:;9;:;
2C;:C
:^::;^
C:;:g;
;::;:
^;::;:^;::
;;:;::;:;:
;:_::;
;::3:
::;^::;
B;:C; ;
:;:^:;
:;:_:;^
:;:^;
BC;:
_:;:^;
;:^:;:^
:C;;:
;^:;:
^::;::
;::;::;;
2:C:g;
::^;::;:
:;::^:
;:_::^;
:;;g^CC:
:B;:B;
:;:B:;;::
::;:2
^:;:^:
::;^:
^:;:^;::;:
;C_:g;
;C;:B
;f; :
:;:;2
3:;2;93;
^;;:;:;
_::;:
^:;:^;:;
:^:;:;:
;:;:;::;:
;::;1
2;:;:C_
;B:B::
:;^;:
::;:^;
:;:^:
:;:;^:;
C:; :
:: :B:
::_::
;22_2:
;;B;;BC;
;:;::;:
::^2:
;:^;::;^
::;::
::;^:;:;
;:^::
:;:;:;
::;;:;:;:
::C;;C; :
:;^B;
_Y::;
^::;:
::^:;:
^:;:;^;:
:C_CB;:C:
B_::C
;::;:
::;BWC;
;:_::_:
^:;:;;
;::;:
:;::;:^;:
:;C;BC
:_:;:^::;
9;^::^;
;:^;:;:_
:;C;;B_
;:;^:
_::_:;
:C^;:C:C:
;:;:;^;
::;:3
C::^:;;^
::;^;
:;:;:
;:^:;:;-
^:2;:;
:^;::;:
::;:_:;
;; :;B
;^;::_
;:^;:;:;^
;:^::
:;:_::;:^
:;;::;
:CB;g;:B
:;:^;::_::
:;:;:;
;:_::;
;::;::^:;:
C;:C2
;:;;:;::;;
;::^::
;:^;:_;
^:;^:;::;^
_:;::
C;:C2
::;^:
:;:^::;]
;:_:;^::;^
^;::;::;^:
2::;::
;^:;:_;
;::_:;::;:
;:;:;
;C^C3
;:;^::;:;
::^:;:;:;;
:_::;^:
::;;:^
^;:;:;:;
;::;:^:;
;C^;;
:_:;:
:;::_
:;::;
;:CC:
::^:;::
;:^;:;::;:
:^::;:_::
B;_C2
2:2:;
:_:;:
:_:;^:;:;:
;::^:;:
;:_:;
::;:^:
^::;^
^;::;
;:^:;
_9;::;:;
;:;:^::
;^:;:B
;;::;:
::;;:
;:;];::3
::;:;^
;C:g:
:;::;2:
::^:;
;::^::;
;::;:
^:;:C
_::_::
;::;::;^:
;:;:^
;:;^:
:;^;::;:
::^;;:_:
^::;;:_:
;::;^
:;:;::
;_:;::;
_::;:
2:^::;:2::
::;:;
;:;::^:
;;CC:
;:;:;:^
;^:;:;;:
:;:;:^:
;::;::;^
yxy00(
x(T((
;^;;-$
;::;^:
;:;:^;:
;::^-
;:;::
_:;::
:;:_:;
;:_::^
_;::-
^;;:B
;::_::
;^::;
::;::2
;:;:;^;;::
)H$p(
::2:;_2
;::;-
;:^;:
(H)l(
3::;:
p($p(
2B;::
::^;::_
::;::
($)l(
>:^::;
C:;9;
_::;:
;^;:;;:^;
;::2^:2
1-1--
^:^::;:_;
:;::^
-0--0T1-
;::^::;
y101-
0-11-11-01
0-y11
-101101101
-1-101-
::^;;
;:;::;^::;
01y1-
?:^2;
;:;^;
::;:;
00y10(
^::^;:;::C
::2:2::
0y110y1)
;::^:;:;
C; ;:
yy0y)x0)
;:;:^:;
:;:^:;-
-x00x10y
0x1x1xy(
;:;:;::^;:
;:B2:
:;::^::;
yx0y0yx
::;::;
:;:;::
1xyxq0
xpxTxxyx
:;:;^
_::^::;
;B;B;;
xyxpUxx(
;::_;
xyxxpy
C::^;
;; ;B
xxpyxp
^:;:-
:C:; :
p(pxpL
:;::2
ypxTypxp
::;::;
pxpTx
xxpTxp
;::^;
pxpxpp
xppxpx
B;; >C
;::;:2
C:CC;
$(lpHpp(p
((pp(p
;:C;;C
;;:C;
llpplpp
;B;:C
lplpplp
:: :;
Y:;:_
;;_C ;C
;C:;C;
:;::;
::_:C1
H(H(p(pp
:^:;;:-
;:;^:B
C;B;;
f;::;::
2C:;:;
C:^:;;
:;:;_
- B;C
:_B:;
:_:;1
;:;:;
:;:;;
:;;:C
;C;:;:;:;:
;::;::;:
;:C;
;B;:;
y-1y11y
1--0y-y-
;^:B;;
g ;:;
C;::;1
xyxxq
xyxypyp0
;CB;:;C
;:;B;
10--10--0-
--0-0--0-
00((1(
(00-(00
0-(00-(0-(
0(1-(0
00-(1
((1((-0((
(10(()00(0
B;:C;
^B;;B
;_B;;B
;B;;
B;;^;C
B;;B_
;;:C;;
C: :;
;:C;:;
11--1-
-(--y1
:;BC
:;C:;
;_:C;
;;:;B
;:;:2
:CB :
;C_;;
:;CB;_B;CC
BC:_C:C
B;g:;C:C
C:;B^
B;;:C^;;:_
;B;;f
;:;C:_;
;:;;C^;;:C
B;Cg:
BC;;:
B;fC;:;CB_
BC; ;
;;:g;
C:;;_B;;B
B;C;:C;:;B
;B;;g:;;B
;C:;B
C;B3C
:C^;B;:;_B
;C:;:;;C:_
:;C:;C;:_B
;f;;:gC;
C;;B;g:
;;C;f;
g:;;_:C;;f
;C;_:;;
;C;C:C;^;;
:_C:_CB;;:
C;:g;C;^;;
:;;^C
;B;:;_:C ;
C;:C:;:;:;
:;:;:;:_;:
;;:C;:C;:C
;:_;:C
;:;C;:C;
; ;C;C;
C;C ;C;;:C
;; :CC:CC;
BCC;BC;B
;:CC:
; ;:C;:C;B
:3;B;
(p(pH
((H((Hp
$($$(
$(($(($
(p(Hp(
p304-6
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 6)
ftsTitle
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant is an example of a pressurized-water reactor (PWR). Note that two of the coolant towers are inactive due to an accident that occurred there.
Energy (6 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Nuclear fusion
The ultimate dream of the nuclear industry is not to split big nuclei as at present, but to combine small ones - to exploit nuclear fusion rather than nuclear fission. In principle nuclear fusion sounds the perfect answer. The fuel required - deuterium and tritium, isotopes of hydrogen - can be produced relatively simply and in almost unlimited quantities. Although parts of the reactor will be made radioactive by energetic neutrons, there is no radioactive waste from the fuel itself.
There is a problem, however: to produce a continuous fusion reaction would effectively involve mimicking conditions in the core of the Sun or in a hydrogen bomb explosion. The hydrogen isotopes must be heated to extremely high temperatures - to such an extent that electrons are stripped off their nuclei, and the nuclei collide at such high energy levels that they fuse to form helium, releasing energy in the process. Temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees will probably be required, so that the materials involved will have to be contained by laser beams or strong magnetic fields. Technologies have been stretched to the limits to make experimental reactors at centers around the world. It is unlikely, however, that power from nuclear fusion will become a commercial reality until the middle of the 21st century.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
WTN.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"WTN"
defaultPage
fName
).tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant
UVUVz
VzVzV
UUVUVV
UVUzUVUVU
UVUUVy
VzVVU
UVUVU
UVzVzVVz
VVyVUVz
VVUVUV
VUOUU
VUOUV
VUUVU
**++*
zUVUz
UUVUVUV
VVzVVUPU
UVUVUV
VUVUV
\z\zV
VUVUV
UU\yV
UVUVUVUV
UVV[zV
UVUVVUVU
\zVUUV
UVUVUV
VUVVUVU
\z\UV
U[VyUV
VU\VU
VUVUV[
U\UVU
z\UVU
VUVVUV
UVy\zV
\zVUV
UVUVV
UVUVUV
UUVVUVUVU
V\zUUV
V\VUVUVUV
VUVVUVUVVU
UVUVUV
\UzVU\y
yVU[U
UVUVUV
OUUOUOU
UVUVU
UVU\U
UVUVU
z[y[y[y
y[y\y[
[y[y[y[
VUVUV
V\U[y[y[y
VU[y[y
y\Uy\
U\y[U[y[
UU[y[
UUV[z
VU1VV
VzV[z
UVUVUU
VU\yV[VzUy
V[V[V
VUU[ U
\V\yUVUUVU
zV[V[U
UVUVU
UVVzU
VUVU[yU\U
y[y[y[y[
V[UVU
UVUVV\UV
UVUUV
VUVUUV
UVUVU
UVUVVUVUVV
UVUVUVU
UVUVUVUVUV
UUOUU
z\Uz[VV\y\
UU[UU[
U[y[Uy
UVUVV
UUVUU
UVUVUUVUVU
VUUVUVU
[z\z[
UVUUVU
UVUUV[z[
UVUVUV
UVUVVU
VVUVUVUVU
VUVUVUVUVU
UVUVU
VUUVUVU
VUVVUVUVUV
UVUVU
[UUyU
z[zV\z[
[VVUV[V
UVUVUUV
UUVUVUV
VUVVUV
VVUUVUVUV
UUVUV
VUVVUVV
UVUVUVU
VUVUUVUVUV
VUVVU
V[zUy
UVUVU
VUVUV
VUUzUVUzUV
yUUVUU
UVVUVVU
VUVUVUVUUV
UVUVyVUU
[UUVUVUV
VUVUVUUVUV
yUVUVUV
UUVUUVU
UVUVUVVUV
VUVUUVUzU
VU\UVUV[V
VVUVU
VUVVU
VUUVUUVU
1UUTUVV
UUVUVUV
UUV[VV
VUUVUV
UUVUU
VUVUVUVUz
VyV\V
UV\z\zV
UVUVU
VUVUU
zUVyVUV[V\
\zVUVU
VUVUV
VUVUVyVUVU
UzV\U
VUVUVyVUU
VUUVUVUVVU
UVUVUVUUVU
UVy\U
VyVUzUVyVU
VUUVUV
VUVVU
UVUVVU
VUUVUUVU
UVUVUVU
UUVUVU
UUVVUUVUV
VUVUV
UVUUVUVUU
UUVUVU
VUVUU
VUUVUV
VUVUV
VUUVUV
VUVUUVUV
VVUVV
UVUVUVU
VU\UV[UUyU
[Uy[U
VUVzVUzUU
UVVUV
VUUVyV\UVU
VUVUU
UU1UU
UUOUU
yUUyUUyUUy
UOUUOUU
OUOUOUOUO
OUUOUU
UOUU0UO1OT
U+UU+UT
OUTUNUTU
U+UU1
UOU1OUU
UUOUUO
1UO1OU1OTU
*UTOUUNUUO
UU1U1U1U1U
1U1U1U
UU1OUU
UTU+UN
NUUO1UNU1O
U1OU1OU
U1OU1OU1O
UUO1UO
U1OUUOU1OU
p306-1
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 2: Other Sources (page 1)
ftsTitle
Wind power technology has progressed from grinding corn to producing electricity. Several large wind farms have been built in the USA and Europe, principally at windy coastal sites.
Energy (1 of 5)
2. Other Sources
Even the biggest man-made power stations are dwarfed by the Earth's principal source of energy - the Sun. Directly or indirectly, it provides nearly all the energy we need, for the Sun warms the planet and ultimately drives the wind and waves. Even the chemical energy of the world's reserves of coal, oil and gas came originally from plants and algae, which themselves derived their energy from sunlight.
The Earth intercepts hundreds of billions of megawatts of power from the Sun. Although most of this is radiated back into space and is not available for use, the amount of solar energy that is absorbed by the Earth in a single year is still far greater than the energy that could be derived from the world's entire recoverable reserves of fossil fuels. If we made full use of just a tiny fraction of this solar energy, we would satisfy our present needs. The Sun will continue to shine for billions of years, so the energy forms derived from it on a daily basis are called renewable sources.
Biomass
On a global scale, biomass - vegetable matter used as a source of energy - meets a significant proportion of our energy needs. In Ethiopia, Tanzania and Nepal, for instance, it accounts for over 90%. In most other developing countries, wood, crop residues and animal dung provide over 40% of the fuel burnt. Such fuel is the only source of energy for cooking and heating for some 2000 million people.
In many developing countries, the wood used as fuel comes mainly from unmanaged forestry, in which trees are felled but not replanted. There are developments under way, however, that will make both the production and the combustion of biomass more efficient. Crop residues, such as straw, which were once left to rot or burnt on the fields, can now form the fuel for compact boilers used to heat farms or factories, to generate power, or to fuel industrial processes. Farmers, particularly in the Third World, are beginning to plant fast-growing tree species in forests or between rows of crops to provide a regular supply of firewood.
Many tractors in Africa are being converted to run on sunflower oil instead of diesel. Crops rich in starch and sugar can be fermented to produce alcohol, which is added to petrol in many countries, notably Brazil, to form what is known as 'gasohol'.
Rubbish
Domestic and commercial waste is expensive to dispose of in dumps, yet it could form a valuable fuel. A dry weight of 100 million tons of rubbish - perhaps a tenth of the total collected in the USA each year - could replace about 15 million tons of coal. In Sweden, there is already a scheme in operation known as 'district heating'. Twenty-three refuse incinerators burn roughly half the country's domestic refuse, and the energy produced - rather than being used to generate electricity - is used to heat nearby homes and offices.
Where waste is dumped into the ground, it can still yield useful energy. As rubbish decomposes, it produces methane (the principal component of natural gas). More than 30 large sites in the USA already extract gas from buried refuse dumps, and the technology is being introduced elsewhere.
Even sewage can be used as a source of energy. Millions of rural homes in the developing world have biogas plants. At their simplest, these consist of cement-lined tanks buried in the ground, which receive human waste or animal manure. Bacterial action produces methane, or 'biogas'. An estimated 20 million people in China use it for cooking and heating.
Direct solar energy is one of the simplest sources of power. Building designs, old and new, take advantage of it for heating and lighting. Today, more active designs are becoming widespread. Each square meter (11 3/4 sq ft) of a solar collector in northern Europe receives roughly 1000 kilowatt-hours of solar energy in the course of a year, and can use about half of this energy to heat water. A similar collector in California receives twice as much energy as this.
Solar (or 'photovoltaic') cells, which use the Sun's radiation to generate electrical energy, are also becoming cheaper and more efficient. Earlier cells, made from large slices of crystalline silicon, were very expensive, but new materials, such as amorphous silicon and gallium arsenide, are bringing the price down towards the goal of about one dollar per watt. The latest experimental solar cells are able to convert about a third of the energy in sunlight into electricity. Solar cells are already proving the best option for producing electricity reliably in remote locations.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-11UU
1y0UUy
y0yyU
yy]yU
y]y1,
-01-110y
yyUyyU
]yUy]y
UyUyT
TU0--,--0
-11--1U11T
Uy]y]
U1yUy]
UU11Yy
Uy]yUy
y--01-1U
y]PUUx]
y]y1T11U11
-11U1-11
0U11T1
yy]y1T
yUyy]
-1-1-10-1
1-0U1y
]yUyU
1U11T11Q
01-U1-11-U
y0UTU11yU
]yU1-01
U1-0y0y
}11T-1
1--1-0-1-0
1--01T
]yUU1UyU1
Q1U,U
Q]y1T1
y0U1U11U11
-1-1-1-11-
-01-0y1
UU0U1
-1-0-
U1y1U1U101
1-U1-1-1
11-1-
]y0y]
UU0y11UU
1U11T11-U
:^:Y:^
11-11-
U11U11UU
11U11U11U1
-11-1
U-01P1-1
P11T11U1U
UU1y1y1U1U
01U1U
::1-11
1T11U11T1U
y11U11U1U1
]U1}y
UU-U,
U11U1U0
}1UU11y1y
1UU0U
U11U:
y1U11
0U1T1
U0U0yUU]U1
1y01U0U1U1
1U11U
UU1U-
U]y10
1UUYy]
-0U11T
]yUU11UU
y1U1U
U11U1
-0yTU1xU
U1T1U10y1
^ :^::1:
}UU11-0U1T
1U-1TU
]y01Q
]U-1-U
}1U01U1y
1T11U1U11U
Uy1U1y1
]T1P-
]y1T1
> b^^
]U0y]y
:^:^1^:
]T-1Q-
1P1-1TU
}1T11U11U
y0U1UU
UyTQ)-
UT11U
11U0U0
9y]y]yUU1y
]y0U1,1y
,U11U11
)-011T1
U1U11U
U1U1U1
yyUy1U01T
11y11y1
]U1-U
y1y]y]
T11U1U11U1
0U1-11
yUUy]y
UyU1U1T1y
U1x1yyUU]
y]y]y
0U11U1y1
]y1T11yU
U110U1U
T1,y]y]
y]yU}
1TUU1y1y
(U-T]
]yUU1UU
U1U1U
y1yUyUU1yU
--T11T-0
}yy]y]y
1U01x11U
UyUyyU
]UU1U
1}T1y
-11T1U
]y1y1
1U1yyU
y10U1UT
yYUy11xyU
-0U1y11y
0U110
yUUYUyU
yy0yy]x1yU
1yU0U10y
y]yy}]y]
y]yUyU
-1y11
V:^:]
U11U11-
yUU11
yUy0yy
Y01UTy
]yy]y
x11Uy
11y1UU
:V1U
]U1^:
^:b :
yyUy]yUy]y
UTU0yT
UU1U1
1P)-,
-1T1101-
b b b
1y1y]y]y
Uyx1y]
]yY1U-
}]yUy]y
-T11y0
1b^Y1
U1U1y
U0U0UTU
]y11(-
]yUY1T]yU
]yyUT
UyTUy
1U11yU
]y011
U1011T
yUy1y]U
]y1T1
UyUUyU1-
T1yU]y1
1UUY]
UxUyUy
1y11U
^:_:^^
y1yy]y]y]y
T1UU1xy1y
xUUyUy
y11UU1y
yUYV:
1T11U1
U1UU1UU]
1-(1]
yUUy]Y
Ty]U0yU1yT
UU1U0
UyUUY1T
Uyy1yy
y1U1yUY1y
V:2:V
]U11U1
U1U1U1U1UY
U11U1U1y]
UT1y]
yy1y]y1
TUUyU
:^:^:V
y11V:
U0yU0Q]
: ^ :
TU]y]UU1
yUYUy
1U1U1
1911U11-1
U1U1U
1U11U1
1x]U1U11U1
}y1y1U
yUUy1y
y]yy1x1Ux1
UyUy]y]
-U1U1
V^2:1U
U11U1
UU011U1U1-
y10yUTU1U1
yUyy]yU
y]yUy]y
f b
11U1T11
U11U1-0U1-
1U1-1T1-U
b^ b
yUyY]
UyUUy]
]yU11-10
1x1yy
1yUyy]
1y1YU]
:^:2^b
U11U11-
0]1U]yUyUT
]y]yU
11T1yUyUYy
y]yUy]
UyyUyU
-y1UU1
11-1U
1U1U1
1U1U1
-110--
UU011
TUU1y
T1y1y1
Uy0y1yUT1x
-11y1Uy1Y
U]U]y9
1]U1U1U
1U11U
-1-11--
y0y1TUT
]yy}y1yUyU
y1U0U1y
11yU11
]y1U011
]U0UTU
Uy]yUT
}]y]y
1y1y1yU
y1T1U10
1T1U11
y1y1U
1T1y1U
11y1y1yUUy
y011y
y11y1
y]y1U
]yy]y0
0101UY
1Y1U911
U10y1]y1U]
UY10y9y
y]yyU1U1xy
11U]y
11U1U011yY
1U1U1
U11U1yU]UU
UUyUy
0U0y]y
]yUyUUy
y11y1yU
]y]yUy1y10
y1yy]
1y1U11T
1y9y]
UU1y1T1
]yUy1UyyU
UU1TUyU
Uy0y0U
1UU1y11U]
y]yUyU
y]yy]y}Y]
UU1U1U1
y1y5y
1UU]y1U1y
1y11YU0
TUy1y1y1
yYU1yU
10y1y0y1y
1U1UY11TU
U1U0U1TUU
1y]U1T1
}]y]y
0U110U
0UY1yU]
1y1UU
yUy]y
y]yUTUx1
1x1yUy
UU0U1
U0U01y11T1
y]UUy
y1T1y1y0y
U0U11U
TUy1y
UyUyUy
y1y1y1
U11U11U11U
0U0y]y]y
UxUyy
yYUU]y
01y1101yUU
1x1Q0UUyUy
]yyUy0U0U]
y]yUP-y]y
UUY1Y
Uy]yy
]yUy]U01
Uy01T
1T10U11U11
yY1TUU]y]
yy11y5U1UT
]Uy11
yU11T
UUyyU
yUyUyy]y
2^:^:^:
]y1yyU
y101UY]y]
1U10y]
1T1yUyy1x
0U10-T1T
Y1y11Ty
y1y1y
y1y91T]
y]y1yU1-y1
U,U1Y0U]
y]y1y
UT1U0yy
Uy1y]y
11yYy]Uy5
1yyY1x1
yy}]y]y01U
]y1T11
UYy]yU
]U01U11TU
y1yUy
]U1xyU
UyyUy-1
y1yY]y
1y]yUYU
yUy1y
yUUY1T11
}y1T]
1yyY1y1U
U]1U1UUT]y
yUU1yy1x
y]y]y]U1
yUy1yU
}UyU}]
y]UyUy
0yUyY0
yU1U]
1x1U11y
]yy]yyU
]yy]yyUT11
T1PUY
UU0U]UU
1yy]T
UyYUy]y
}y]yy}]y
y]yy]
yUxUT
U1x1y]
Uy1yUy]
UU9Y9UY]yy
yUUYU
1yUyU
U1y0y
yx]yy]
UyUy]yU
11U01
yUY1y
1yU1YU
Y11T10
y]yUy
1yy1y1
UyUYUUTy
y1yUyUy
y0U1y
U11U1
y1yUUT
0y1U1yU
yy]y101yU
2^:2^:
]yyUy
U1U11
]y9y1UY
yy]y0
yUy11yUy0y
Uy]yy
]UUy]
y]}]y
:V:2^:
yy]y]
Uyy]yUy
by]yUYy]U
U1UUyy]
UyUyU
}y]y]y
]yy1U1y
y11y1y
1U10UU0
]y]yyU
1U:2:
y]U1U0yU
0U01U11U1
y10U1U
::^::
y]UY1
y1UY0
UU0y1
UyUy1y
y]y]y]yy
:^:2:^:2
]yUUyUyyUy
}]y]y
yUy}]y0yUU
yUy]U
Uy1yUy
yUyy1
UyyUyU
]y}1yy]
y0yyU
:V:V::2
2^::^
yUyUyUyU
Uyy]yU
::^:2^:2
^2^::
yUyUyUyy
yy}]yU
UyyUy
UyyUU
2^:^:^
1y1yU1yUy
]y]U1y
y]y]yy1y
]yUyUyU
yy01Q0U1
TyU1yTUU0U
1T-T-U,U1Q
UT1y]y
yTyy1T
,1Q1U
T-U0-,-
-,1-11
2^:V:
:_b^:
]y1\y
0U1U,-,-,
P11,1U1U1T
,-1Q-0
UU1,U1
U1-y]
1y11T1U
1y1U1U
1y]U]
]yy1yXUU1U
y1-Uyy1
y1U-TU
yUy1y1011U
yyUy0
U011U
1--0U11
Uy1-1
Q1T1011-
1Y-1y1U1-
UU]yU
yUyUy
TU11-
?^:^: 2
]y]yy
UyUy]
1--1-
::^:^;
1y]UU1
y]yUy
yyYUy}
; :^:
:_ b_
1yYUU
11y]y
yy]yy
Vb:_:f
]y110U01
-U-1xy1yUy
U-110
1yUy}
0U,U0-T
Q-,Q1-
yUy]y
U1U11-
1UyUy11U1
y9U1y
Q1Q1-10UUy
Uy11U11U1
1y11U
1Yy11y1U11
U1U1U
U1U11U)1
T11UU
1y10U1U
UU1U11U1
U11U1U
^_:^ :^
1y01U11
-11-11U11
y11--T11
11U11U1U1
]y9y1T1
U-1--
^_^^;^:
U1U1U1U1y
:2^:^
U1Y1U5
y]yUyUU1U1
1U1y0y]y
b ::^::^
:2^2:
11U1U1
UU1U}
UTU1U0Q10-
U1)U]
}y]y]y
>_^;:^:
1U11y1
UU11U
V:^:VV::
UUy1y
yY]U]y]y1y
]yU--
11U1U11U1U
UYyy1
U1-1-11U
:^:^2:
UU]Q1-
:: :^
^_:^:;
UT-U101y11
^ >_:;:^:
1Y1y11U1
:: b
>:^2:^2^
:6^:^
:;^:_2
:^:
-1-1-
:^;:2
U011T1yU
?^:;^:_:
^::^2
yy]y1Y1
11-0U0
?^^;^:;:^:
^?^ f
b:^
y]U1U1yy
:^:^:
bcf_b^;:
>;^:_:b:
bc b
UyU1U]y
-11U1
1-,U1
;:^:^:^:
? : :
b;^2^;:
^:_:;
:^;:_: :
^c:^::
:^?:_
>;^>;^;^;^
::_^2^
:;:_:^;:_:
b; :b^>
:_:: :
::2^:V
V:V2
>::_:^:V:^
U^^:^;:^::
_:;^;
;^:^:_:;^
::;^:_:_ :
>_:_:;:
:;^;:_:
:_::^;:_:_
^::^;^;^^c
:^2:V
;:;^:
? :c:;:_:^
^::^:
U^ b^
;^;^:3
V:?^:^:7:
-1U11
^ :;^:^;
;::_:^:^
V ::W
b :;V:
^::^:_:;^;
::^;^
:;^:_:;:_:
9U1U9^
:^:;^
:V:V:
;:^:;
:^;V
:^3^:
_:V:^2^
b ::
:^2^:
:^2^;2
V: :
;V c^:
:^::^
V::^;
> : b
c:>_::^
:_:^2
: :_:;^;:;
> : B b
;^:^: :
^;^;:_:
:_:^;
_::_:^;::_
;^:_:^
::^> :b
:c;b; >_:_
:;^:?^:
] :>;b^
> bb
Vb_:V;
CbCc c ^
?> ?
?fcbf ^
B;b :cg c
> ? >
1U1T1
?>c C?
;>? bC >
? >c: ?f
c_?b >;?bC
;^:6:^
:?fcg:?
;>_?>g;b?
cf_bg^ b
:;^:;:^:^;
:^;^::;^;^
^: 2:
>g?^?
;>;cB
c?^c?
CbC>_>
:_:^;^:_::
1:^:_>_
:? :c:?^;^
;^>;^;^;^
>;?_>;>_>;
?B_?Cc ?:
:cC^??B ;b
?^cB_
b ? ;
::_>:_:^:
:U: ?
>^;:?^
:?^:;^
:_:_:;
f?g?^?bCb;
c>_>g:c?g;
>CbC^?g?Cb
;>CcBc:cB;
>g:c b
;^>_:;^
?bb :c:
>:_::_:_:;
:?^?;>_>C
_>;cB;b;?f
;>;b?^?^??
:?b;b;b;c:
??_>_>g:?^
bU:^1
:^ :b
f ^ ::_::_
>_>;b;b;c
:?^?:cB?^?
g:cC^?:?f;
bC^?Bc:?;b
C^?g:?:?^?
b b b^
>;^;:;
>;b;c:?:?^
?^?:?_>;>_
>;>g>_?:?^
?:c;>_>_?:
?:c:cB_>;b
b_>gb
U11U1
^:^::_:
V;: ?:c:?:
c:c:c;>g:c
:c:c:?^?^?
:c:c:?^?:c
;b;>_>_>_>
_>;b;b;:?^
?^;:>_:c:?
^?:_c
?_:;:^
:c;b;c:?:c
;>_:c:?:cB
_b;b;>_>g:
?^?:c;>;>_
>_:?^?;>_?
:;>g?_>;b;
c:?:?_>:c:
^ > :^:
^:: ;_>;_>
;b;b;c:?B_
>_>;:?:c:c
:?:;b;?^?^
?_>_>;c:?;
b;c:c?^;^?
:c:;>_;b;b
;c;>;b;
:>;^?:c
:c:?:c;^?C
:c:c:c:;>_
>_>_>_>;:c
:_?:c:c:c:
c:?:_:c>;^
?:c:c:?^;>
;^?_:?: b
?_:c;^;>;^
?^?:?^;_:?
:c:c;b;:?^
?:;b;b;:?:
c:;?_:?:c:
c:?;:_>;^?
^;?^;b;_>;
:c:_>
?^;c;
>;b;_?:;^?
_:c>?^>_:?
^;>_:c:_?^
?:_>_>_:c:
_>_:_:?^;b
;c:_?:;>_:
?^;>_>_:c:
:?:;^?
^;>_?^?_>;
:;^;_>;b;>
_>c:;>^;:_
>;;^?:;_>;
:c:?^;?:_:
?:_>_:_>_;
>_;:c;:c:_
::c;;^:>
?:_;b;^;?^
;^;:?^;b;c
:?;^;;^;;:
_?^;c^?^?^
?_>_>;^?^;
^;c:_:c:c;
:?^;^
?;>^;?:b;^
;:;b b
^;:>_::^?^
y-11-
:_;b;^?;^
^;>;^
;;^;b;^?^?
:;:_:;^?^;
^?^;;>_
;^;^;_:_;:
;>_:_:_:;:
b:;^?
^;_:_;:_;:
Q0-1y
1--11-11
:?^?:
_?:;^?^;^;
_:b;^?^
:_:;^;
^>_>_>_>_
^?^;b
;;b:_>_:>_
:_;;:
?:c:;c
::?^?^:_:_
::;_::;^;
_:_:_:
;b;^;?_;
;:c;^;_
;^;>;_;^;
;^;:c:;^>_
c:?^:_:
;^>_:_:
:c;^;^;
^;b;^;c
:_>;^;^;;^
U11U11
_>_;;:
;c:;^?:
_:_;:
;b;:c;>_>^
^;c:;^;
:_:;b;>_;:
;^?^:
;^;_:;
c;b;;b
c:;b;
_::;:?;^
c:?_:
;_;:_
;^?_:
;^?^;^;^;
;:_:_:
1U1U11
:_;:_
^;:;^
;^:;;^?:_
;^;:_
;^:;^
:_::_:_
U11U-1U1
}1]Y1
_2 :_
_:^:_:_:;^
:_:_:_
;_:^;:
:;:_:;:_:
_:;^;^;^
_:;^;^
;^;:_;;:
^;^;:
UUy]y
:_:_:_:;^;
:^;:_:
^;^;:
U11U11
;_:;:_
_:;^
_::_:_
^:^;
yUy]Uy
^;:;:
:;::
;^:_2
^:;^:
:_:;^:: :
11U1U1
_::_::_::c
:^:_:_: :
-1-1U
:_:_:
;_:;_
b:; ^
^:;^;^;^
^;:;^ :
_:;:_:^;:
;^:c: ;
:_::;
^>^;^;>;b;
^;^;: :
:^;^:;_>:_
:_:_>:;b;
-1-11
_:;>^
;:_:_::?^
;^: >
^:_;^;>:_:
_:;>^?_>:;
^;_:>;b;^;
:;^;c: :
2^2_::^
:_::;
^;?:^;^;:?
^?^?:?^ :
^;^:^:^;^;
:;_::c:^?:
;^>_>;?^?^
^;^;:^b::_
:^;:^:c;:^
;b:;:b
::;6_:_>:c
:c:_?f;b
2>^?;b
-:_Bb:>V
1-11--
:_:;^
-11V:
;:;^;
^:_:;
^:_:;::^;^
b > ::^:
^ :^:
:_:;:_:b?^
:^?^>;^;:^
: ?^
;:^;:
:_:^::_
:^;^:_:_:;
^;^:^?^>;_
:?;:^?
: ;b_:_:^
>c B^
;^:c:;?^:;
^?:^:^?:c:
:cBc :>
:b^c>
;:_:_::;^:
;b:;:^:^>_
:c:^?g;
:cB;>
>Cb: ? ^_2
;^:;b:_:_:
c:;:?
:c: ;>
:cC>;
: b^:
;^;^:
_:;^;:_:?^
;:?^:;:c:b
;b;b;b?:b;
? >^
: B_cf
^:^;^;
:_::_:^;^:
c:b;>;b_>:
b;: cf:? :
>: >c >
> : :
:_::_:
>;^>?:b;>_
>^?^ ;bB >
;b >f > >
_:;^;^;
^;:;b:_:b;
b;^;^;>^;b
;?: > : ?^
bb_> >
::c:_:?^;
>_::;b:;b;
> > >
^:_:c:^;
^::b;::_::
c:^;bB_b C
?: bb?f
: bB>
f b_
:_::;b:;^;
^>_:>_>^?:
:c:b;>^:b_
b C : b_bb
>f > b ^
_:^:;^?::_
:>_:;:_:c^
?f?b:
:^^ :;
:^;:_:;^:;
b;^?b;b>_:
>:c: bCb
: > B b_b
;^>;b:c::_
::_:>_ ?:
> B b;
b > b :^b
2^?^;^:;:b
;>^ :>_bf>
>B : >_b
b^ >^
b ^
:_>_::c
::c:^?^;:?
^ :c: :>
B > >
>_b b b
1--11
f;:^:_::c:
?: :b;bC:c
fb;b >^ b
^ > :
::_>^?^?^
>_b fb b
:^:^::b b
b :
:^2f:;^
>:_:c:?^ >
B bf > b
: > b^b
bf b
:cb_>;b
;^?:> :_>
;b:;b^^;>
B^ :
b^cfb >
:-1^b
--1:1
^:;^>; :b
;b;bC : b_
:_>^>
:c B : b
f_ b b
:b f_b b^
b : b
:f_bC
> b >
^ :?
b: Bb_
:c: f^
: : :
> B b
: :^: >
: > : >:
b^;b f^
: :b
>^ >
> f :
11-11
^b^ :
^2^1:
^?^b
--1-1-1-1
^bf ^
-11-1-1U
; > >
U1U11U
^:^:1
-1:^a
: :11
-11-11
1-11-11
-1-11-1U11
^b11-
-11-11
-1U11
11-1U
11U11
-11-1
--1U-1-1-1
1-1U1
1-1-1-11
-1-1-
:_:^1
-11--11
-1-1-
11-1-
1U11-
11U11U
11-1-
1--1U
-11-1-
-1-bV
-11--
2 :^:
:^:^:2^^
11--1
11-1:
-11--
--1--0
1-11-
11-11-1
--11-
-1U11-11-
-1-11
:^::^
:^2:^::U
11--1
V:^^::
1-11-
:V::^;^
-11-1-
11-1-1
^:^::^
-1-1:
:_:V:
1U9Z1-11
:2^:^
U11--
^:^:V:Y
2:^2^:
:V:^:
::^:^
2^:^::^11
:^::^
:V:^:
p306-3
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 2: Other Sources (page 3)
ftsTitle
In a typical hydroelectric power plant, a river is dammed to create a reservoir that can provide a steady and controllable supply of running water. Water from the reservoir is channeled downstream to the power plant, where it causes a turbine to rotate, which in turn drives an electric generator. The electricity generated is then stepped up by transformers at a substation to the high voltages suitable for transmission.
In areas where there are considerable fluctuations in electricity demand, pumped-storage plants may be installed. The surplus power available at off-peak periods is used to pump water to a separate reservoir. At peak times, the stored water is released to generate extra electrical power.
Energy (3 of 5)
2. Other Sources
The traditional windmill has tapped the energy of the winds for centuries. Its modern counterpart is far more sophisticated. The biggest ones have blades resembling giant aircraft propellers up to 60 m (200 ft) across, and can generate 3 MW of electricity. Two such machines provide much of the electricity for the Orkney Islands, and several large 'wind farms' have been built at coastal sites both in Europe and in the USA. Another approach, pioneered in Britain, is a wind turbine with blades like a giant letter H, which rotate around a vertical axis. The mechanism tilts the blade tips inwards in high winds, thus regulating the supply.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Hydroelectric power plant
_5_5_
5_5_5
Y;Y;;Y;_
HH$$l
;;Am;
HlH$$l
lH$$HH
$$HH$
l$$HH$
**++*
HHl$$
$HHlHl
HHl$$l
$I$Hl
H$HH$
lHH%H
I$P&y
H%$zu
HH$ll
788788
]1]1]1]3[
3]3W?c3>
y|{y|
O$H$H%H$
H%H*J$O$PJ
P&J++z
$$%$I$H$
%H$$H$%H$$
W7U7U7U7U7
U7[U88
?18878
d>c?c?
W?c?c?>
>8>>8>8>8
>8>8>
OOQNQOOQ
QNQNQ
PQNOOQNQJ
p306-4
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 2: Other Sources (page 4)
ftsTitle
The tidal power station at La Rance in Brittany, France, opened in 1966, consists of a barrage blocking the 750 m (2460 ft) wide estuary of the River Rance. The tidal waters are channeled through 24 tunnels in the barrage (seen in cross-section below). Each tunnel houses a reversible turbine generator that can operate efficiently both on the flood tide (when the water flow is from sea to basin) and on the ebb tide (from basin to sea). At high tide, the sluices are closed, trapping the water in the tidal basin. The water can then be released to turn the turbines when the tide is low but when demand for power is high. Each of the 24 turbines can generate up to 10 MW -the total output of the plant being sufficient to satisfy the needs of around a million consumers.
Energy (4 of 5)
2. Other Sources
Water power
The average power in waves washing the North Atlantic coast of Europe is 50 kW per meter of wave front. Many ingenious techniques have been devised to harness this power, ranging from systems of rafts or floats known as 'ducks', rings of air bags known as 'clams', or columns in which water is forced up and down. Much effort has gone into the development of such techniques, but it has proved difficult to design structures capable of withstanding the force of the waves with- out excessive maintenance. It has become clear that wave power will not easily produce the hoped-for quantities of cheap energy.
The power of running water has long been exploited by water mills - one of the most ancient means of harnessing the power of the elements. In some countries, hydroelectric power, or 'hydropower', is the most important source of energy. Hydropower provides 8% of Western Europe's energy, and worldwide it provides roughly as much energy as nuclear power. Major projects can be controversial as they may involve flooding environmentally sensitive areas. However, the latest design of low-head water turbines has reduced the necessary height difference (the 'head') between the turbine and the surface of the reservoir, so making it possible to build smaller barrages or even to place turbines directly into river beds.
Tidal movements - ultimately derived from the Earth's rotation - are potentially a vast source of energy. Where tidal currents are funneled into river estuaries, there is an opportunity to harness this energy. There are currently six tidal power stations in the world, the biggest of them at the Rance Estuary in Brittany, France. Proposed tidal power schemes across the Severn Estuary in Britain and the Bay of Fundy in Canada would be much bigger.
Geothermal power
Just 30 km (19 mi) beneath our feet, the rock has a temperature of around 900 degC (1650 degF). This heat comes primarily from the gradual radioactive decay of elements within the Earth. Strictly speaking, this source of power is not renewable, but it is immense. There is enough heat in the top 10 km (6 mi) of the Earth's crust, at depths accessible with current drilling techniques, to supply all our energy needs for hundreds of years.
In some parts of the world, including Iceland, the amount of geothermal heat reaching the surface is distinctly greater than elsewhere, and can be used directly as a means of domestic heating. In other countries, blocks of flats are heated by hot water from wells 2 to 3 km (1 to 2 mi) deep.
The biggest reserves of geothermal heat, however, are to be found deeper still, at 6 km (4 mi) or so. As the rocks at this depth are dry, it is harder and more costly to get the heat out, because it is necessary to pump down water in order to bring the heat up. In an experimental project in Cornwall, England, three boreholes drilled to a depth of 2 km (1 1/4 mi) have been interconnected with a system of cracks, allowing water to be pumped from one borehole to another. There are plans to drill holes to three times this depth, but even at current depths the water returns to the surface hot enough to produce steam to drive turbines. Some estimates suggest that in Cornwall and other areas where the rocks are hotter at shallower depths, schemes of this kind could ultimately yield energy for Britain equivalent to 10 billion tons of coal.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Tidal power station
very f
Y}YY}Y}
^}XY|Y
|YX_Y
}Y}}_YY
YY_X_
}YY}Y}Y}Y}
Y_}Y_Y_
}Y}}Y}
Y}Y_}
;}YY,W
_}_}Y}XY
YX}YY_Y}}
YY}YY_
4WX3W3XWXW
|4Y|4
4XXYX5
-XXYWX|4XY
W4XX5XXY4X
YX4XX44XXY
YW}3YX4|44
W443YXYX5CX
**++*
4X4YYXX5XY
4}4X4XYXYX
|XXY`X
R|Y4|XX
|5|YWYX|5Y
XXYXY
WY5|4YcX
XX}4XXYX
XX}4X|*X
/XYXXY3
Y|4XXYX4
YXY|5}
YXYXXYXXYX
WYWRXX3|4X
XXY4YY.
5XX5|XX}
4YXX5YXYXY
YW5}3]X
YXYX5
YY|5+X
4YX4|5WYXY
5|YX|4XY
5XYXRXX4
YXYXYY
XWY4}4Y
YX4,X
YX5|4Y
4XX4XYX5Y
YYXYYHX
YX|YWY
YXYX4|W4
QYXRXX4XWX
XX5XXR
..R.X/
4/.5./4..Y
X.X..
4-X4X4
5|WYX5
YXYXY}GX
.|XYX/XYX5
XR4X..Y5Y5
XX5R5X/X4R
R4XX5X
.X5+X
YX|4XX4|4
YXX4WX
YXX|5XY5XY
XXYXXY5|5X
X5|5XXY
R4YXY|5XX4
XYYX5|X4XY
YX5X|5XR
YXYXXY|.5&
R4{4*X
.4XYX
Y4XYXX5|5X
4XX5W5X|4X
4XY3X4YXX4
XXYXY|YXX5
{5WY4|5W
.|W5|.XYX5
XXYXYX4XX4
YXWX4{4
|XRX4X5RXX
;e;e_;__;
;__;_
;_eeY
XW5+X
_YY_Y
X..4/4R
4/./.4X.X.
X.4R/XWXY.
/X./X.X55Y
/S./.X5RX/
4X..X455X5
XYXX/
/Y.5XX5Y
X5XY4|4XX4
_RX|*X
4|4(X
;e; _
R5|(X
Y_YY_YY
Y5{(X
YQ4(X
X|5'X
X5Y|5LX
.XX5&X
X{X4XXW9X
4YXXY<X
XXY|5WY4
4XYX5|5XX5
{5XY5|5XYY
XYXY X
5XYXX}Y__.
X5XX4|4|XY
.XX4XXY|
/|Y4|Y
5|5|Y
YXY4YX5Y
4X4YXY
X5XXYXYXY
4}XY|5XYY
5XYXYYXXYX
5|5XX|5XX4
5|5|X
YY4XR
W5|4YX5|YX
WYX5X5YXYX
|4YX5|X
Y|XXW.
XX4YX4XW
Y5|5XYXYXY
4YX4|5W
4XX4YXX4|4
XYXR5
45XYXXY4
YXXYXX5XXY
XYXXYXXYXX
5X5XY4
XXY5}4XX5
..44X//X
.X5.Y4Y4/}
5YXY5
5|YYX5|XXY
4XX5{5YW
YX4XYXYX5X
XYXYY
XY{4|XY|4
XXYXXYX/
RX._R4|3
4|4XX5|4XX
YX5XY4XY
4XXYX4|X5|
4XXWYXQ
4XYX5XXY
__e;ee_e5
_QYXX{5X|
5YXYXYXX
/4.4XY44Y.
4X.YX.X5XY
4XYXXY.4Y.
Y5R4Y|5XYY
X4YXYYX}
4XX5X
.5../Y4/
4X4}XY|4
e_A_;e
;_;;e
5YY5Y5Y
A5AA5e;_e_
YYX4XY
YY5YY5Y
;55;;A;;55
;_;e;;
YW5XX
__e>_
QQPQP-,
.44|4XR
X{|{|W{
P,,P,,P
Y-X-.
H$$H$H
Y5Y55
__A;_
A_A55
%%H$H
ee_5Y
Y_Y(_
ee;_A
;5;;e
$%%$$
Q-Q4|Y
$H$H$
P$H$$HH
$$H$H
IHOmssz
$$%$%$$%$
%$$H$$%
%$$%$$H$
I$H%$$
$%$%$
$%$H$%
$I%$%%IH
$$%$%I%$%$
H$H $
H$%$$H$$%$
$%$%%$%%
I$%$$%
%$$%H
H$$%%H
%I%$%$$%$
$%$%$%
H$$%I$H
H$H$$H
$%$%$
%$% $
ztsOH%
%$$%$$%
$%$$H
n$%$$O
ztOPO
%$%$%
%$H%%
H$$HH
|U$$%
$%$I$H
%H%$I
keA_;
YY_Y_Y!_
%$%$H
ee_;e
H$$H$H
YY55_55A
_YY_Y<_
;55YYI_
5__;_
k5YYP_
;5_;e
%$%$%H
eY5;Y;;5_
e;_Y;_Y;Y
;_5_;;5;_
IH$$H$$H
_;5;;_
_5__;__5;5
;Y _"5
_;_;;
e__;_e__
_;__;_
;_;_;55
5;;_;
;_;5;
e;_YeY_
;;_;;_;5
%$%$$I
;_;Y;
;_;;_;5
_;_;;5;/
_;;_;_;_
;_;5_;_;_5
_;;Y;_;5
H$%$H
%$%$%$%$%$
%H$$H
H$$%$
O$%$%
H$%$%
__;_;;e_e;
_;__;_;_A;
e__e_
_;;e5AYAA5
_;_e5
;__eY
_55_Y;Y
XYX5X4X
5X.4X44
X..4/.5.55
_;;_5;
eY;_;__5
_;;_;;
$H%$%I$$
$H%$I2$
e5_;__5_
$H%$%2$
e5;;__5e
_;5_;;5
Y;;_;
_;;_;;5
eY;;_;5
__55Y5
__;__;5
5_;;_5
eY;_;;5
%$$%$%1$
%$%2$
5;_;;5
$$H1$
Y5;;_5
z$%6$
5_;_;5
s$$%H4$
OH%6$
H$%%$$
;5_;5
$$I$$%
Y__Y_
Y_Y__Y__
_Y_Y_Y
Y;_Y_Y
A_;;_5_
;;5;;5;
;Y;;5;Y;;5
;Y;;5;Y;;5
5;5;5
_Y5_5_;
__;__;_;__
;_;__;_;__
;_;__;_5;_
;;Y;_Y;;5
5;__;_
Aee;eA__;_
5;;_55;5
5;Y;_;55
55;;55_;5_
;;5;;5
;5;;5_
$$IH$%$H1$
e_;__;ee_e
_ee_e_ee_e
$$HH$$%
5__5__
_55_5Y
;;_;_;;_Ae
$$H$$%$
;5;;5;
5Y_;Y5
55Y55
YY}XYYX
WY4YYXYYX
X55YXYX
O$$HH
H$HH$H
%$H#$
$%$%$
H%H$H%
H$$H$$
$$H$H
H$HH$HH
H%$%$$HH$
H$H$$H&
%$$H$%
%$HH&
%,J,,P,&
,PP,P&,,PP
WVPWWX
A5Y'_
ee;Y,_
YY55_;e
_YY_YY__5
Yee5B_
55;5;
;5;5;;5_ 5
e5;5Y;A;
;Y__5
N$NH$HHNNH
$NH$H$$H
HH$H$N$
OOsOIO
p306-5
World Energy. By their nature, all renewable sources of energy are virtually impossible to quantify. However, the diagram gives a fair indication of how the world derived its energy in 1988 - as well as showing the continuing dominance of traditional fossil fuels.
Energy (5 of 5)
2. Other Sources
Energy in the future
No single form of renewable energy is likely to be as dominant in the future as oil and coal have been in the past. Taken together, however, such sources could answer most of the world's needs, replacing fossil fuels as they run out or become environmentally unacceptable. If fuel-saving measures such as improved insulation and waste-heat recovery are also widely implemented, it may be that our energy needs will fall even as our prosperity grows.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Outline
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 2: Other Sources (page 5)
ftsTitle
p308-1
The Double-Acting Steam Engine
The principal component of a typical Watt double-acting steam engine, as built c. 1790. Steam from a boiler was introduced alternately on either side of the piston, so that the engine was
double-acting
- both the upstroke and the downstroke were powered by steam. After passing through the cylinder, the steam was condensed to water, which was extracted by means of an air pump. As the steam condensed, a partial vacuum was created in the part of the cylinder into which the piston was moving. Thus - although the steam pressure in Watt's engine did not exceed 1_ atmospheres - the relative pressure difference within the cylinder increased the effective power of the engine.
Engines (1 of 5)
The tempo of human life, the jobs we do, and the structure of society itself were all transformed by the invention of heat engines - engines that use energy provided by heat to do work. The steam engine, invented in the 18th century, greatly extended mass production in factories, as well as providing power for railways and ships. The internal-combustion engine, invented at the end of the 19th century, greatly increased personal mobility through the motorcar. And the jet engine, the 20th century's contribution, has made travel to the ends of the Earth an everyday occurrence. Before the invention of heat engines, man depended on animals to draw the plow and provide transport, and on waterwheels and windmills to supply power for industry. But even the biggest mills generated no more than 10 horsepower - about 7 kilowatts.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Engines (page 1)
ftsTitle
(p((Lp(
((L((
((L((
;:;:;;
((L((
;; ;:
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
pypyq
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
89\909
89\98
89898989
((L((
((L((
((L((
p()((M(()L
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
((L((
($($(
p308-2
ftsTitleOverride
Engines (page 2)
ftsTitle
Charles Parsons's Turbinia. Parsons's triumphant demonstration of the steam turbine in 1897 revolutionized marine propulsion. The turbine rapidly supplanted the reciprocating steam engine in naval craft and other ships.
Engines (2 of 5)
The power of steam
The first engines to use steam were pumps used to lift water from mines, developed in England in 1698 by a military engineer, Captain Thomas Savery (c. 1650-1715), and improved in 1712 by a Devon blacksmith, Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729). In Newcomen's atmospheric engines, steam from a boiler was admitted to the lower part of a cylinder, so driving a tightly fitting piston upwards. The steam was then condensed (turned back into water) by cooling the cylinder itself, thus creating a partial vacuum and allowing atmospheric pressure to force the piston down in the power stroke. The piston was attached to a beam pivoted in the center, the other end of which was connected to the pumping rod.
The most significant improvements to the design of steam engines were made in the second half of the 18th century by the Scottish inventor James Watt (1736-1819). Watt's first and most important step was taken in 1769, with the introduction into Newcomen's basic design of a condenser separate from the cylinder. This meant that the cylinder did not need to be alternately heated and cooled; the result was a dramatic reduction in fuel consumption and thus in operating costs.
In 1781 Watt's invention of the so-called 'sun-and-planet' gear allowed the reciprocating (up-and-down) motion of the cross-beam to be used to drive a wheel. In the following year, Watt improved the design of his engine still further by making it double-acting.
Steam engines were applied first in industry - mining, manufacturing and textiles - and then in transport. By the early 19th century, the first commercially successful steamboats, the Charlotte Dundas and the larger Clermont, were operating in Scotland and New York State respectively. By this time Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), a Cornish engineer, had built steam engines operating at much higher pressures than Watt's. He installed one of his engines in a locomotive that could pull a load of 10 tons on a cast-iron tramway between Penydarran Ironworks and the Glamorganshire Canal in Wales, at a speed of 8 km/h (5 mph). The irresistible rise of steam had begun.
Today the only important form of steam power is the steam turbine. Instead of driving a piston (in a reciprocating motion) the steam in a turbine expands past a series of sets of blades mounted on a single axle, generating power without vibration. It was developed by Charles Parsons (1854-1931), an engineer from Newcastle, whose triumph came at the Naval Review at Spithead in 1897. His little yacht Turbinia wove its way in and out of the ponderous warships at the unprecedented speed of 34 knots or 63 km/h (39 mph).
Steam turbines found their ideal function in generating electricity. Fed by steam from coal, oil or nuclear boilers, and attached directly to alternators, huge steam turbines produce almost all the electricity we use.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
11-1-
-11-1
-111Y
11UU11-1
11--111-1-1-
-1-11-
1-1-111
1--11Y
-1-1-1-
-U-1--
1-111
11U--
Y11U1
-1U1111-1
-1T1L
-11-U
11111
1-111-
11-111
-111U
1U-1-1--
UUZy11
1-11-
-11-1
-1---1-1
-1-1-
1-1U1
1-111
11-1-1y
11U11
11-11
11-UU1-11111-
-1-1-
1U1-Y1]U1
1-,1-
11-111-
11-U1U
--11111U111
1-1-]-
11U11-1
-1-Y1
1U111M
U-1--
111-1-1
Y1U1U
-111-
-111-1U
1111T
T10-111U11-1
1-1-1-
-1-,-
--1-1-
Y111-1-1
-1-1-111U111
11-11-
U1U11U
11U1-11-
1-1-1-1-1-
1U1U1
11U1-11-1-1-
1-1-1
11U111
1-1-1
11-11U11111y
-11--
U111-1
1-111
1-1-1
111-1
Y111U1
1U111
-Y1111Y
11-1-1
11-1-
11--1111-11
U111-
11111111-1-1---1--1-1111
y111UU
11-1-y1
U1U11-1-11U1Y-
1-1-1
111-1
-1-111-
1-11--1-1
11-11
U1Y1]1
1111-
--1-1
-1U-1111U
11-1-11U
1-111
1-1-1
-111-1-
1111-1U
--11U-
1-1-1
-1-1-
1-11-111-1-11-
--1-11-
-1U1U-1-
-111-
-1-1-Y1y-1-1-
11y1-
-111-
--111
111-U
11-1-1-1-11
-1-1-
-1-1-1--
-1-11
111U1
-11111
1-11-11U111U
11--1-
U1-U111
1-1-1-
-1111
-U11-
11U11
11-1-11UU
U1U1-
-1-1-
1-1-1-
111-11--
-1-111-
U1ZU1-1-1
Y111-
1-11U-
Q1-11U11U
1U11--
1U-1-
111-,
1111y11-
-1-U1U
11-1111y1
1-1-1-
1--1-
1-1-1
-1U11U1
1y-11
U11-y11-1-1y
1111y
1-1U1
U1111--1
1U111U
YU1U1U1
--1---1
1-1-1
--011
11111-
1U111U
1-1111
1111-11-11-1
1-1-1
1-11-
U1y1Q
1-11-
]-y-1
1U1-1-
1U1y-
1-11-
111-1-
U11U1
--11U1-1
-11-1-
11111-1
1111U
11--111
--P---
111111-
111U-
1U1U1y1
-1111
-U-1-1
-11-1
-Y11U1
1-11U111-1-1
U1-1-1
1--1U
-11-Y-
1U-1-
1111-
1y11101-1
1111-
1-11--1-1
11-]1U11-
-11--
-]-1-1-1
1111-1
1U-1-1
1-1-1-
1-1-1
---11
-Y111
11---1M1YU1--0-
1y-U-U1
-111-
-1--11-
--11-
1U1U1
--11--
1111-
-]-]1
Y-1-11111-1
-1-1U
1-11y1-Y
11--1-
11111U1
U]U1-
-11U1U
111111
1111-11-
11-1-1
1U11--
-011-
-1111-
-1-U-
111--
y1-Q0U1
11U1-
]UU1U11-U
y1U1-
-1y-1-U-1
-,1-1--
-1-1y
-11U-1--
-1-11-
1U1]U
11-1U
11-1)
1--y1y
-1-U11-
-1--1
--1-YU1U
11--1
Uy111
-111V
11-1U
U11-1-Y
1U1U1
11111-
111-1
11111
y-1--
U--1-
-1--,---Y
U1-111-
U-1U1
11-1-1-
UU1U-
11-11
1-11-
1-111
UU11y-,
1111-
1-1UU1
--UM1U
1-1-1
1--11
--1y1U
1Z11-
11-11U
111U1-111-
-Y-Y-1--11
11111
-1-1U1
1U111
1--1-
y1U11
Y1U111
--1U1
111y1
11-11-11y1
UU1-1-U1
1U1111-1
11-11
1y-]U
-1111-1
---11111--
11-1-
111111U
11-1-
11-1U
1-11]-
1--11
U111U1U-1-1111111
11-111Z
1-1-11-1U
1y]1U]
-1111UY-
U1U11U
U11-1
U1111y9U
1y111
11-11
1U-11Y-1
1111U11
1y-1-1-
11-11
11--1U
)1-1U
1-111--
1Y-1U1
1-11U
-111-
U]U^1
1111-
111U1
11111
1111-111-
1U111111
1-1-11
-1--1-1-
1-1-1-
-1-1-11
-1-U-1-1
1111-1U11
11111U
--1--
111-1111111
111U111-1
-1T1U1
U-11111-01U1111
11U111
U1-1-0-11-1
-11--
1-1-1
11-1y
--1-1
1-1-1-
--11U11111
1-1-1-1
-1111-
1-11U11-
Y--1-1U
-111-1111U-U
--11-1-1
-1-1-
U11111
1-111U11-1
-11-11U
U11U11
11-1-1
-11-1-1
11Q11U
11y1-
U11--1
11--1U
-0-1-11
U1-1-Y
-1-1Y
U11-1
1-1-1-1-1
1U1111-1
U1-1-1
-1-0-1
1U--1-1
U-1-1-1
-1U11-
-1-11-1
11--1-1-1
-1--1
1-1-1--
1111-11
11y111
1y11111
1--1111U
--1-1
1-1-Y1-1-11
1-1-1
U11-1
-111U1
-Y-1-Y
1-1-1
1-1--
11-1-1
U11-1
--111-
1-1-1
-1-1-
111y1
11-1-1
1-1-1
11-1-1
11-1-
-1U11-1U111-1-1
11-0-1Q
-1U11U
U1U1U111U-11--
U11-1-1
1111-U1-1
111111U11-1
Y-11U111
-111-
1-1-1
1111-1111-Y
1-11111U1111-1
-01-1
1111-1
1--11U
1-1-]-1U11-1--
-11-1
-1-111-1111
1U11-
1--1-1
--1-01
11111-1-
11-1-1
-1111-1
111-1
11-1-U
111U1-1-
-11111-
11--1
--111-1U1
1-1-1--
-119U
U1-11--1-101
--111111
-1-U1-1--
--1-1
11-1-111
111]1
U1-1---11U1
11-11
1-11U1
1-1111
1U-11M
-1-1-
01---111U11T1
-1-1-1-1-
,-1111-111
1-Y-1
-1-1-111-
U1-11
--0-1-1-
11-1111-1U1-
1-1-1-11--11U1
--1-1-01U11--111-1-111-1-9
1-1111-
1-1-1
11y1-
1-1--1
11111-9
1U-111-1
P-1111U-
-1-1-
-1-111-1-1-01-
1-1-1
11-111-1-
111-1-
-U-11U
1-11-1-1-1-1
1-1-1
-Y-1-
11-11
-1-1-11
-y1U-
1U11111
U11-1-Y
--111
-11111U11-
11-1-
111-1-9
1-1U1
11-1-
-11-1-]-
1-11-y1
-y1-1-1
111-1
-1-11
11U111U1U
U11U1
Y1y11-
11-1-11U1U
-111-1-
-1U11
-1U111
-Y1U-Y1
-111-111y1
11111111-
1-1-1y
1-1-1U
1]U^1
11U11111
Y-1-11
-U-1-0-11-11111-1-111-
]111111U
U-111-1-111
1U1U1
1y1]111
11y1U
-1-1-
1-1-1-1UU1111-1y11-
U-1y1
1-1-1
-111-1
1-1-1-1-11-1-
11U1y1U1
-1-111U111
1-1-1-1-U11--11U
1-11-1-1-1-
1-111
111U1
Y1U1111-11111
111U1-11
--1111-1-1-
1U111
1]-Y1
--1-U
1-,-11
U1-U-1-
-111U11U1
U-1111
111-1-1-1--1-y
Y-U1111111111
11M1----
yZUZ1
11111-1-0
1111U1-1-1
U-1-1-1
U111-1111U1U11U1
--Y-Y-
1-11-Y
Y-111U
-1U1U111
-1U1-1
11111
1--,-1-1
1111-1U111U1
1-1-1-11-1
1y1111-11111
U11-111111111-1U11U
1-U-11-1-1111
1-111-
-11-1-1
1U1U11
-1-1U1
U-11-1
Y111U11Q1111-111-1-1-1111y1111
11--1
1-1-Y
1-1-Y
UU-U-
111111-1111111
-1-1-
11-1-1-1
1111-1-
111U1
-11-U111U
,U-11-1
Y-11--111-1U111111-111-111-1-1-
1U1111-1-1
1-Y-1
-1-11--11U11-1U111
-11U1-11111
U1U1111-1-1
1U111
11-1-1-1
111-11111U11U1y
--11U
1-111U
1-11---111-11111-
111111
11-11
111-1y-11y1
-U1U1
U11111U11U1
-1--1
1-11U1-1-1
-1111U111-111111U
U11U111111-111--
1-1-1-11
1-1-1-1-1111-1-1U1-1-1U11-1U
1--111
1y1111-1-
11111
-1-1U11-1Q
1U1111111U1
-111-1111-1
1U1111U1111U1
1-11U
1111-U111
1-1-1
--1-U-1-1-1
-U111
11111y1y1
11-1111
11-1-11
1U1U-111111-1
U1y-1UU
U1-1U
-,-1--1-1--11U1U1
11-1-1
-111-11-1-111-111-11U1U
U-1-111U-
1U1U11U
-U1U-]-U-
1111U1
01U111U11U
-1-111--
1111-11-111-1-1
11--111-1111
-111-
U-1-1111U-11
1-1-1-1
--11U111
1111U1
-U-U11
1U1U1
1111-11111y-
-11y111
11-11111111
11-1-111111-11111-1-1-1
1-1-1-1-111-1-1-11111U
1-1-1---
-11--
1-1-1
11111-
1U1U1
p308-3
ftsTitleOverride
Engines (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Four-Stroke Engine
In the four-stroke (or Otto) cycle, the piston makes four movements in each power cycle. Most cars have at least four cylinders linked to the same crankshaft, both cylinders and crankshaft being set within a heavy cast-iron cylinder block. The crankshaft also drives the camshaft, which opens and closes the valves at the top of each cylinder in the correct sequence. The four cylinders fire in turn, usually in the order 1-3-4-2, so that there is a power stroke for every half-revolution of the crankshaft.
1. The induction stroke. The piston moves down as the crankshaft is turned (by the starter motor, in a car), causing a reduction in pressure inside the cylinder. The partial vacuum thus created draws petrol and air (mixed in the carburetor or by a fuel-injection system) through the open inlet valve into the cylinder.
2. The compression stroke. The fuel-air mixture is compressed as the piston ascends with both valves closed.
3. The power stroke. The mixture is ignited by the spark plug, timed to produce a brief spark at the top of the compression stroke. The piston is driven down as the burning fuel expands.
4. The exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve opens and the piston rises, expelling the burnt mixture from the cylinder to make room for fresh fuel on the next induction stroke.
Engines (3 of 5)
The power of steam
Petrol and gas engines
In steam engines the fuel is burnt outside the engine - they are external-combustion engines. But internal-combustion engines - in which the fuel is burnt inside the cylinder, expanding to drive the piston - have proved even more versatile. Their combination of lightness and power made possible the motorcar, the airplane, the tractor and the tank.
The first practical internal-combustion engine was built in 1860 by a Belgian inventor,
tienne Lenoir (1822-1900). It ran on coal gas, had a single cylinder, and consumed a lot of fuel. A much better engine was built in 1876 by the German engineer Nikolaus August Otto (1832-91), who re-invented the four-stroke principle (or Otto cycle) first put forward in 1862 but subsequently forgotten. The four-stroke engine has had a greater impact than any other type of engine, and is used to drive most of the cars on the road today.
The two-stroke engine is a simpler version of the four-stroke. It dispenses with valves and uses the rotation of the crankshaft inside a pressurized crankcase to force the fuel into the cylinder. It has essentially the same ignition system as the four-stroke, however, and it too is fueled by petrol and air (although it requires a proportion of oil in the fuel). Such engines still find uses, for instance in some motorbikes and in chainsaws.
Some engines dispense with spark plugs altogether, relying on the increase in temperature caused by the compression stroke to ignite the mixture. They are called compression-ignition engines, or diesel engines, after their inventor Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913), a German engineer. Air is fed into the cylinder, and compressed so that it reaches a temperature higher than the ignition temperature of the fuel. The fuel is then injected by a pump, and ignites. More economical than petrol engines, they are used in ships, trucks, taxis and increasingly in private cars.
Like the steam engine, the internal-combustion engine also has a turbine equivalent - the gas-turbine (or jet) engine. Very high speeds and temperatures are reached in the operation of such engines, making great demands on the materials used.
The first efficient gas turbines were installed at an oil refinery in the USA in 1936 by the Swiss firm Brown Boveri. In Britain Frank Whittle (1907- ) realized that the gas turbine could be used to power aircraft if the exhaust gases were forced through a nozzle to produce a powerful jet. The first aircraft powered by jet engines were flying by the end of World War II, and the jet has gone on to transform air travel.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Four-Stroke Engine usea
^::^::
^::^:
^:;B:C-1
::^::C
1--1-
B::^::
B::9^::
::^::B
::^::B
^::^::
:C:C
C::C::
;:B;:B:
^::^:-
^::^:
1090y
^::^::
9099019
]B1]8
Y::^:1
1::^Y
09009
81-8981
0010U9
0y18x1
2::^::
T100T0010
1:^::
(01((
0((10(
8\88\8
00(00(00((
pTxx1-
\80T808x
p308-4
ftsTitleOverride
Engines (page 4)
ftsTitle
The Jet Engine
The turbojet is the simplest form of gas-turbine (or jet) engine. Forward thrust is created by the rapid expulsion of high-pressure gases through the nozzle at the rear of the unit. The compressor turbine, initially set in motion by an electric motor, acts like a series of fans to compress air drawn in at the front of the engine. The hot compressed air passes into the combustion chambers, where it is mixed with fuel (kerosene) and ignited. Once ignited, the temperature within the engine - typically in excess of 450
C (840
F) - is sufficient to keep the fuel-air mixture burning. Before exiting through the tail nozzle, the exhaust gases pass through a second turbine, which itself drives the compressor turbine via the driveshaft.
The basic turbojet has been modified in several ways. In a turboprop engine, the driveshaft is used to rotate a conventional propeller mounted in front of the compressor. The turbofan engine, used to power the biggest aircraft, has a large fan in the air intake at the front of the engine. This fan takes in extra air, most of which is channeled around the combustion chambers and out through the tail nozzle, so increasing efficiency and reducing noise.
Engines (4 of 5)
The power of steam
Rocket engines
There is an easier way to produce a jet - by burning fuel in a container with a single nozzle through which the exhaust is driven. This is the principle of the rocket engine, first demonstrated as long ago as the year 1200 by Chinese and Mongolian soldiers. The first long-range rocket, the V-2, was developed by a team led by Wernher von Braun (1912-77) and used by the Germans to bombard London and Antwerp during 1944 and 1945.
Rocket fuels may be either solids that burn steadily rather than exploding, or liquids (such as liquid hydrogen and oxygen) that react with each other. Unlike jet engines, rockets need no external source of oxygen, so they can work in space.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Jet Engine#
**++*
p308-5
ftsTitleOverride
Engines (page 5)
ftsTitle
Engines (4 of 5)
The power of steam
Rocket engines
There is an easier way to produce a jet - by burning fuel in a container with a single nozzle through which the exhaust is driven. This is the principle of the rocket engine, first demonstrated as long ago as the year 1200 by Chinese and Mongolian soldiers. The first long-range rocket, the V-2, was developed by a team led by Wernher von Braun (1912-77) and used by the Germans to bombard London and Antwerp during 1944 and 1945.
Rocket fuels may be either solids that burn steadily rather than exploding, or liquids (such as liquid hydrogen and oxygen) that react with each other. Unlike jet engines, rockets need no external source of oxygen, so they can work in space.
Refrigeration
The operation of a domestic refrigerator is based on the fact that the working fluid - the refrigerant - becomes cooler as it expands and changes from liquid to vapor while circulating through pipes within the cold box. As is does so, it takes in heat from the warmer air within the fridge, so cooling the interior.
The refrigerant - now vapor - is withdrawn by a pump. The pump then compresses the refrigerant, so raising its temperature above that of the room and allowing it to transfer heat through a heat exchanger into the air outside the fridge. Becoming liquid again as it cools, the refrigerant is then ready to pass into the cold box to repeat the cycle.
This system - the vapor-compression cycle - is the basis of most domestic and industrial refrigeration. A commonly used refrigerant is the chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Freon-12. Otherwise inert and ideally suited for refrigeration and other uses, this and other CFCs react with the ozone and are responsible for depleting the ozone layer.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Refrigeration
; ; ;
; ; ;
; ; ;
; ; ; ;
; ; ;
; ; ; ;
; ; ;
; ; ; ; ;
:;_;:;;
:2:2;
:2::2:
2::2::2:2:
2::2:2:2
2:2::2
p310-1
ftsTitleOverride
Oil and Gas (page 1)
ftsTitle
A BP production platform in the North Sea. Offshore oil fields currently produce about a quarter of the world's oil. Although drilling at sea does not differ in principle from land drilling, great technological skill has been required to design platforms that are stable enough to allow drilling to take place and resilient enough to withstand the harsh conditions of wind and waves. Most rigs currently sit on the sea bed in shallow waters, but anchored floating rigs allow oil to be retrieved at depths of over 1000 m (3280 ft).
Oil and Gas (1 of 4)
For hundreds of millions of years before man first trod the Earth, plants and simple single-celled organisms had flourished. After they had died and decayed, they gradually formed deposits of coal, oil and natural gas - the fossil fuels upon which modern society largely relies. We live, quite literally, upon the reconstituted rubbish of the past.
Oil and natural gas are hydrocarbons - organic compounds built from just two elements, hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons range from light gases like methane (CH4) to heavy solids like asphalt. Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons - some light, some heavy - and is often found in conjunction with natural gas. Three types of rock are needed to form an oil reserve: the sedimentary rocks in which the hydrocarbons form; porous rocks that can store the oil and gas like a sponge; and an impervious layer of rock over the top, ideally in the form of a dome, to form a trap.
Finding oil
Three surveying techniques are used to pinpoint areas where oil and gas are likely to have formed. In gravimetric and magnetic surveys, small variations in the force of gravity or in the Earth's magnetic field give clues to the type of rock in an area. Seismic surveys use shock waves, usually created by detonating small explosions. These waves are reflected from the various layers of rock beneath the ground and measured at the surface. Computer analysis of the reflected waves enables a cross-section of the subterranean rocks to be drawn.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 2
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
bC:^
^:>CbB > f
b ^:
bb >
> B >B
]UP1y
]x$9y
UTUy]y
9-TUU
9-1T9U1
0U10U
9Y1xU1
1T]]1
1T10U5Y9-
1::2^
10U10
=U9]1
1T10U]]
]U]U]
9yUQ0-
y1P]x
-UTxU
UyTtU
x1PMPUt
,(t,p
UPuxytU
xt0x,-
1x]yuU0
1y1yU
9Q-01
Y01-1
]U0]1
H]-10
TU\yt
\1,$$
Q9U91
1UU]1
1-]-U
-T9ax
-TUTU
1UT1P
U,xUyx
1-,-8
11x-0-%
Ux]10
]x\tV
P9UTy
yy1y]t-
yTUT9T
aP1]9
yQM$U
]0](0U
\9]]U1
0Q1P-
T]P01
y\y9P
1xTx,L
10$TP0P
y0P]U
0]TU,L
1-]^1Y
80U,U
1(UPt
]PxpT
,9H9,x$
9$$Pt
9T,L,]t]
>b?:^:
Pt(y0tP0
y1U]]
--P0y,
y0T0U,
Q-U0]y,H
LPP(,P(,L
L,P,,L
]TUUT
-01-Q0
,,L,u(P$
T,1\9
,p,t$t,
,p,p,x
U,p,t
p,x0]
tpPP(tp,L,
\1tPxP
U1,UT-,
-}Ty-x
9T1y]
$PLPPLP,,t
08-0]
0x]x1
,LPLPP,
x1x0xUT
1\Q-x
tLt,p,
T0-T1
xyPyPyt)
,-H10yUP
TQyUP]y
,t(t,p-,t(
yTx,P
utPp,
$,p,t)t(
y,xPt(xPxH
U]]1P
,p,t(tPP$
PUtpQL
0Q0-y
-0u1T
b: B^
-0QPtP
P-U0-
PTytLt
tMxU,,
1b]U-
,x,MQx
:b:^::
yuTty
TUTt]x
TuTuTuT-
UPQ0]
xyTux1
1P\x]x
QpPH0tx
Py1,1yUx
tMP(PP
TU0QTy
?B;bB
PyPT,
8LtTxtT,
U,TH$
U1UTQ
LP-T-L
-0UTUU
:T-u0
8xt8]
9Y9U1
qP-uY
,U]U1
U90-1
T,U8y1T
9]9U]y]
-9-91
,y,yU
yTT1\11-
1-1-11-91-
U11-]
,y,y-$y
>b>b >
bf > :b:
P0PyTQ9-1
1919-]
1]119)]1
UYUY]U]Y1
]-81]
P-P,P-T
1Yy1yU9y
11U19-U9
yT,,0
P0PUT1t
UY1Y19
P1tUTUxyT
y]y9y
1U911]
Ty,xxQ
UtyPupT
-L$tU
xyTxy
1,TTxyT
TUxUT
911]1
UxxTx
U]1]1]1U1
1Y1a91
1-0Ux
11]19-1
91]1]
1U1U9U
UT1YU
Y1y]y1yy]U
U9U19
1U]U]
U91U11
11U]U]U
U1]19
1U9UU
]1191
911U11U
119-11
1]19U
U11U1-]9U
1]UU9
1U191U1
-9-91
1U11U
1]1919
11U11:9
U11U1191U1
11U11
p310-2
Modern drills work by rotary action. The rock is cut by the drill bit, which is attached to a drillstring made up of 9 m (30 ft) sections of steel piping. The top piece of the string - the kelly - is usually square - shaped, and fits into the rotary table, which is powered by a motor and causes the whole drillstring to rotate. In order to concentrate weight on the bit, an extra-heavy section of piping called the drill collar is fitted immediately above the bit. As the well gets deeper, fresh sections of pipe are added to the top of the drillstring.
The chips of fragmented rock are carried to the surface by pumping 'mud' (actually a mixture of water, clay and added minerals) through the hollow drillstring. The mud is force out through the bit and returns to the surface, where it is filtered before being recycled. The mud helps to keep the bit cool, and its weight prevents blowouts and gushers-uncontrollable escapes of oil and gas - if the drill should encounter a region of oil and gas under high pressure.
Drilling speeds vary with the type of rock, from 60 m (200 ft) an hour in soft shales to only 6 m (20 ft) a day in the hardest rock. When the bit is blunt, the whole drillstring must be removed section by section, and new bit fitted. The process of removal and reassembly can take as long as 10 hours if the well is deep.
Oil and Gas (2 of 4)
Drilling for oil
When a likely area has been identified, exploratory drilling begins. The first oil well was drilled in 1859 in the USA, at Titusville, western Pennsylvania, by Colonel Edwin Drake. He was attracted to the spot by a stream whose water was often contaminated by oil seeping to the surface. He found oil 21 m (69 ft) down, using a drill that pounded away at the ground in an up-and-down motion. To day's drilling rigs work by rotary action and must drill much deeper to strike oil, often to depths of several kilometers.
If economic amounts of oil are found, production wells are drilled. From a single derrick, many holes can be drilled, fanning outwards to reach all corners of the reserve. This is done with a tool called the whipstock, which forces the flexible drillstring to bend slightly. A large field may be drilled from several different platforms. Each hole is lined with steel casing embedded in concrete, and explosives are used to punch holes through the casing, to allow the oil to get into the hollow casing from the surrounding rock.
Once the well has been drilled, an arrangement of pipework and valves - called a 'christmas tree' because of its shape - is installed at the surface to control the flow. The pressure of the oil may be enough to drive it to the surface, but pumps can also be used. As pressure falls, it may be artificially increased by pumping water down other holes. Even with such techniques no more than 30 to 40% of the oil in place can be recovered.
Production and transportation
Oil is seldom found exactly where it is needed. In most cases, the biggest oil-producing countries - principally in the Middle East, Africa and Latin America - are not themselves major consumers, and are therefore able to export much or most of the oil they produce. Russia and the USA also possess large oil reserves, but both are major consumers as well, the latter being by far the greatest single consumer. At the other extreme, Japan - another big consumer - has virtually no reserves of its own. This geographical imbalance between production and consumption has meant that the transportation of oil has become a vast business in itself.
The easiest way to transport oil overland is through pipes. Pipelines are made up of welded steel sections, and may be up to 1.2m (4 ft) in diameter. Pumping stations are installed at regular intervals to maintain pressure. For sea transport, huge tankers are used. Natural gas can also be carried in ships, if it is first liquefied by refrigeration.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 2
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Oil and Gas (page 2)
ftsTitle
x0y0yy1xy1
0y1xx10y90
yy0yy0yx0
xx10y10xy0
xyyx1xy-
0xx10
x1x01x0yy
0xy0yx0y0x
1x0y0x1x0x
0x01Tx10x0
x0x1xx(
0(0)0
01(0x
(()(L
(L()(L
L)((L)((
L(()L(
(L()(L
00)()(()(
0(0)0
p(xx(x(
pxxp(p(
p310-3
In order to yield useful products, the various liquids and dissolved solids of which crude oil is composed must be separated. The principal method by which this is achieved is fractional distillation. Crude oil is heated in a furnace to around 350 C (660 F), and the oil vapors passed into the lower part of a fractionating column, a cylindrical tower about 50 m (165 ft) high, in which 30 or so perforated trays are placed at regular intervals.
As the vapors rise up the column, the temperature falls. Constituents (or fractions) of the oil with high boiling points, such as lubricating oils, condense lower down the column, while fractions that boil at lower temperatures, such as petrol, continue to rise until they reach a level cool enough for them to condense.
Modern distillation units generally have a capacity well in excess of 100 000 barrels a day. The barrel is the unit most commonly used in the oil industry and is equivalent to 160 litters (42 US gallons, or 35 imperial. gallons.)
Oil and Gas (3 of 4)
Drilling for oil
Oil refining
To turn crude oil into useful products it must be refined. Two basic processes are used. Fractional distillation allows lighter fractions to be separated from heavier ones. Catalytic cracking uses heat, pressure, and certain catalysts to convert or 'split' some of the heavier fractions obtained by distillation into lighter, more useful ones. Today the most valuable product is petrol (gasoline used to drive the world's cars, so a growing proportion of each barrel is converted into that.
Natural gas is often found together with oil, because it is formed in the same way and collects in the same kind of geological formations. The development of long-distance pipelines and ships that carry liquefied natural gas has greatly in creased the market for gas, which is both an excellent fuel and a useful raw material for the chemical industry. Gas flows more readily than crude oil, so as much as 80% of the gas in place may be recovered. The processing of gas involves separating it from any liquids and 'sweetening' it by removing gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. The end product consists mostly of me thane (more than 80%) combined with smaller amounts of ethane, propane and butane.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 2
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Oil and Gas (page 3)
ftsTitle
$HH$$HH$
($$(H
($H$$
p(H(pH
(($($$
129121
1121U1211
pllHHlp$
H(p((p(H(p
($(p(($($(
$(($($($(p
($(($($(p$
(($(($
p(($($(($(
$((p$($(($
(($($(($($
($(($(($((
$(($($($((
$(($($
$($($$($(
08808808
8808080
8080808808
08808890
TT0x(
p310-4
Encyclopedia
Section
Oil and Gas (4 of 4)
Drilling for oil
A diminishing resource
How long will oil last? Although very large, supplies cannot be inexhaustible. The difficulty is that we cannot simply divide the world's known reserves by its annual production to work out how many years' supply is left. If we do that, the figure comes to no more than 20 years or so. In reality, however, as stocks diminish and prices rise, many new sources of oil are discovered, always keeping reserves ahead of production. While geologists accept that there must be a limit eventually, it remains a long way off. So far we have used no more than a quarter, and perhaps as little as a tenth, of all the oil that can be extracted.
OIL AND WORLD POLITICS
During the 19th century coal was the dominant fuel, but in the 20th century coal has been eclipsed by oil. Although renew able sources of energy are becoming increasingly significant, the dominance of fossil fuels in the global picture is still largely undiminished. Oil and natural gas meet about half the world's energy needs, while coal still accounts for more than a quarter. By contrast, nuclear power provides just 5% of global requirements. In addition, oil is the principal raw material from which plastics and polymers are produced. Without it, modern society could not long continue to flourish.
During the 1970s the producer nations, particularly in the Middle East, realized that their mineral wealth was being used up by the developed economies of the USA, Europe and Japan, and that the price these countries were paying did not reflect the true value of the product. The oil-producing nations therefore got together to form OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) - a cartel, or 'producers' club', intended to gain a greater share of the wealth derived from oil for those who were fortunate enough to have territory containing it.
In 1973 and again in 1979, OPEC was strong enough to enforce huge increases in the price of oil, placing a big burden on the world economy and sparking off worldwide inflation. The extra burden imposed by higher oil prices led to a slump in industrial output and world trade, and although the oil producers became rich, the fall in the value of the dollars they had earned eliminated much of the gain. Today the growth of oil production outside OPEC has reduced the organization's hold over the market, and oil prices have fallen back to values lower in real terms than they were before the second 'oil shock' of 1979.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 2
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Outline
ftsTitleOverride
Oil and Gas (page 4)
ftsTitle
p312-1
ftsTitleOverride
Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 1)
ftsTitle
Opencast mining is now used to obtain the bulk of most minerals - although the environmental damage is severe. At Bingham Canyon near Salt Lake City in the USA, the scale of the operation is vast: 38 electric shovels, 62 locomotives, 1268 wagons and 28 tons of explosives are used to remove 96 000 tons of ore (containing only 1% copper) and 225 000 tons of waste every day.
Mining, Minerals and Metals (1 of 4)
The Earth's crust, a thin layer that accounts for only about 0.6% of the planet's total volume, provides the fuels, metals and minerals upon which developed societies depend. The quantities of most metals in the crust are small - only iron, aluminum and magnesium are really plentiful.
We are able to extract them only because they are not evenly distributed but occur in local concentrations where mining is economically possible. There are far greater concentrations of some metals, such as iron and nickel, in the Earth's mantle and core, but for the moment they are beyond our reach.
The first metals to be used by man were those that occurred in their natural state and appeared in outcrops on the surface - gold, silver, iron (in the form of fallen meteorites) and copper. However, supplies of elemental iron and copper soon ran out, and during the Bronze and Iron Ages it was discovered how to extract metals from their ores, in which they are chemically combined with other elements, most often oxygen or sulfur. A variety of techniques have been developed for finding and then recovering ores and other minerals.
1. A shaft mine is necessary to reach deep deposits.
The mineral is reached by a shaft descending vertically into the
ground.
2. A drift mine is used where a seam appears as an outcrop at the surface, usually on the side of a hill. The seam can be entered and mined directly.
3. A slope mine, used for deposits at moderate depths, enables the mineral to be hauled up an inclined tunnel in wagons.
4. An opencast mine is used where a mineral lies close to the surface. Layers of overlying soil and rock are removed to expose the mineral.
The mining method chosen to extract coal or other minerals depends principally on the depth of the seam or deposits. Opencast mines (also called open-pit or strip mines) are appropriate for deposits close to the surface. Various types of underground mine-drift, slope or shaft mines - are suitable for deeper deposits.
Mining, Minerals and Metals (2 of 4)
Mining methods
There are basically two kinds of mine - underground mines and opencast (or surface) mines. In an underground mine, horizontal tunnels several kilometers long are cut to get at a seam containing the desired mineral. Various techniques are then used to remove the mined material from the seam. In room-and-pillar mining, a common technique in coal mines in the USA, the coal is broken up by means of explosives and drills, and then removed to form large underground caverns, with the roof supported by pillars of unmined material. Longwall mining is more suitable for deeper deposits, such as those generally found in Europe. A working face of 100 m (320 ft) or more is cut by huge machines, and the coal is transported back along roadways by automatic conveyors. Powered roof supports are used to prevent falls of rock at the working face. Some deep mines are very deep indeed: gold is mined in South Africa at depths of more than 3500 m (11 500 ft), where the temperature of the rock may reach 49 degC (120 degF).
In opencast mining, the desired material is first exposed by removing any overlying material (the overburden) by means of scrapers, excavators, or draglines (huge buckets pulled along by steel cables). Relatively soft materials, such as coal, may then be removed by draglines, while for harder minerals the rock must first be broken up by blasting. In deep surface mines, such as the copper mines of Chile and Bingham Canyon in the USA, the ore is dug out in a series of terraces, or 'benches', that gradually expand and enlarge the pit. Roadways spiraling to the surface are provided for trucks to carry away the ore.
Alluvial mining, often used to recover tin and gold, makes use of the erosion of ores by water. Carried down by the flow of water, the ores (or native metal in the case of gold) can be recovered from the bottom of lakes and rivers by dredging or suction. The most primitive version of this is the panning technique used by gold prospectors. In Malaysia, huge dredges are used to pick up the tin-bearing gravels from the bottom of lakes. An unusual method is used for mining sulfur, an element vital to the chemical industry. Developed by the American engineer Herman Frasch (1851-1914) at the end of the 19th century, the system uses three tubes of different diameters, one inside another, that are drilled down into reserves of naturally occurring sulfur. Water under pressure and at a temperature of 160 degC (320 degF) is pumped down the outer pipe, melting the sulfur. Compressed air is then pumped down the center tube, driving the molten sulfur up through the middle tube. Sulfur obtained in this way is 99% pure. Today a considerable proportion of the world's sulfur is produced as a by-product of the purification of natural gas.
Common salt (sodium chloride) is found as salt deposits and in sea water. The salt deposits can be mined, while salt is recovered from sea water by evaporation in shallow pools. Magnesium chloride is also found in sea water in small but consistent amounts, and is extracted by reacting the sea water with lime, causing the magnesium to be deposited as a precipitate.
* ELEMENTS
* THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* ENERGY 1
* OIL AND GAS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
!D!wz
ftsTitleOverride
Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 2)
ftsTitle
1--1--1
-1--1
$$($$
($$($$(
$($($($
$$($(L$$($
($($($$
$($$($
$$($$
1212V
p0-px
ppLppL
V221V
V221V
13232322
3223223223
3223223223 2
32323
3223223223
32232-
0100101
V21*U2)2U*
12-2)2U21*
V2212(
22V21
1221221221
1221221
1221221221
1221221221
12-21
1-21-21
12-*2
12-21
12-21
12-21
-21-21-*1
12-2-
12-2-
12-21
322-)1)
)1*-1*
)-)-*
)1-*1-*1
-*1-*U-*-)
1-*-)1-*1-
V-)1-2
)2U*1*
-2)21N
V1*12)V1*1*
V221V221V
22122)22
12212*1221
221221221
122)221221
221221
12-2)
12-2-2)
2--*-
32232-
232323223
1232232
2322322322
32232-
V22:U
V22^2
3232323232
32323232
)-*--*--
223232323
1221221221
1)212
1)212
32322323
)1*1)-)1
)1)-*1
8@8\90
\@8@8@8d8@
8d8@8d8@80
\@88\@88\
\@88@
@88@88
@8@88@88@8
8@88@8@8@8
@8@88@88@8
21N12)2U2
21*12)2U*
12)V1*1V)2
V22V 2
22V22V
22V 2
32323
V32323
323232323
V22323
32323
22323
323232
32232
2323232
22W23232
3232323232
-12232
2323323223
233232
3233233232
322323
232323
-22132
212)2U21
*U212)21V
V22V22
-LppL
32231-
V221V
V22V&2
V223223
V221V
32{32{23
3232{23{2{
32{23z32{2
3{2{32{32{
32{23z32{2
3z33z32{23
z33z33z3{2
323z3
{23x2
22{23
32232:3223
32:32
32:3223
(pp($(
$($($($($(
3223223
322z3223
3z23z231
($($($($($
($($($($($
($($($($($
($($($($($
($(($($($(
$($($($($(
$($($($
($($L$($(
L(($(($(
32311-1
H(($(($((
$(($(($(($
(($(($(($
p($(($(
(H(($(($((
(H((H((H(H
H(H((H(H((
LppLpp
(p(H(
p((ppL
p($($(($
(($(($($((
$($($($(($
(($($($($(
0((H p
pp($$($$(
$$(($($($
pLppL
--22V
^V22V
22V22V
V22322V223
V232232-
3223232
32323V3232
3232323232
V22V22
22V22V
323221
;2323
3232323
-232323
23232
3232-
3232;
V22V1
2)22V
3223223
322322y
LppLp
1--1-
8@88\88\
@88@8
@88@8@
(pHp(
(pp(pp(p(p
(p(pp(pHL
$($($(
($($(
$(($(($(($
(($(($($((
$($($($($(
$($$ppL
$($($(p
323232
3223223
p312-3
ftsTitleOverride
Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 3)
ftsTitle
Longwall mining is more expensive than opencast methods but is more suitable for deeper deposits, such as those commonly found in Europe. Huge cutting machines pass along the face of the seam, shearing off a thickness of up to 1 m (3 1/4 ft) of material at a time.
Mining, Minerals and Metals (3 of 4)
Discovering minerals
Fortunately for mankind, metals and minerals occur unevenly. Copper, tin, nickel, zinc, lead, mercury, silver and gold - all vital to our industrial society - are in fact extremely rare. Copper makes up only 100 parts per million of the Earth's crust, and lead only 20 parts per million. But the availability of metals does not depend so much on their abundance as on how easy it is to find and exploit their ores.
Sometimes bodies of ore advertise their presence by appearing at the surface, perhaps where erosion has scoured the rocks on a cliff face. Hidden reserves can be found by magnetic or gravimetric surveys - a mountain rich in iron ore will affect the Earth's magnetic field and the force of gravity in the immediate vicinity. Seismic and satellite surveying and knowledge of the local geology may also indicate the likelihood of a particular ore occurring.
The mere presence of an ore - even a valuable one - is no guarantee that it can be exploited economically. If such a deposit is too far from its final market, it may not be able to compete with poorer ores that are more favorably placed. In Brazil there are huge iron-ore reserves, amounting to some 50 000 million tons, but because of their remoteness they have only begun to be used since the early 1970s.
Will minerals run out?
As the poorer nations of the world strive to catch up with the rest, the consumption of all metals and minerals is rising fast. Will there be enough to go round? A number of studies carried out since the early 1960s have cast doubt on this. While iron and aluminum are abundant, there are many important metals - lead, zinc, tin, silver, platinum and mercury - the supplies of which seem less certain. In many cases, as one metal becomes scarcer, it can be replaced with another, or with a plastic or composite material, but this is not always possible. For instance, there is as yet no substitute for silver in photographic emulsions or for platinum as an industrial catalyst.
At the same time it is important to remember that in mining we have only begun - quite literally - to scratch the surface. While many of the richest sources of metals have already been exhausted, higher prices and better technology make it feasible to extract metals economically from poorer ores and to tap less accessible deposits. Few mining engineers or geologists believe that there is any real danger of running out of important minerals in the immediate future.
* ELEMENTS
* THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* ENERGY 1
* OIL AND GAS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
9UU0]
1]-]1
]]U18
]11--
U0U99
]0]-]P:U9
P-1-01
]9U:]
9U9T119
1]Y]-9
]]18](
Q1T1Q
Z9^]U
9Y9U]
10U1U
199U9
9]Y]9
1P1]1
8U119U9U
]191011
11T0U9
U]U1Y
Z^1T1
--U09
U9]19U
09]--0
19U90U
]]U]1
1-,1]
1T19U
9U110-
,9U1,
]0-1T
910U0-
]1]0]1
9U1]1
11]0U1
U]1T11
1U--0
91T:T
U1010
T1]U9
109Z]b
-P0-0
-]L1U01
UY99-
T0U,1
11U19U0
-1\-1
9U0]18-
-1T1,
U0UY9
-01T1
-,11-0
-10]9
]10U0Z
9y9U9U01
0]-9U8
919-1P1-T
T,]TUU]U1U
U]xy0
U]10U8-
01-01
11TU1
-11T]
Y0P-9
(U1P0y
1y011T1T,U
0-0U,
]91-0
0-T1T
UY]T1U1
,90P1
P1T1,0U
19yU]
U]UP1,U
UUT1]]y-
11T-0
1T110
]P]9y,
1U]U]
9y1U9U
T1T]]Q
U010-
y]UT1(
UTU]U9U
T-0U0U
T0y0-
T9y0Y]
0y519
]yY1U
U0T]U
1U0--
0-00-
]P]T110
]T](T
1(0--0U]
1y]yYU0
1T9y8
TU]UY
]U]y]
]yTU,
PTx]x
P8yx10
5x,]T
1xUx]-
U,U0U
0y0yx
P0UTUyT
t1TxyT
01xTx\y
}x1xyTx
TUTT]
U\xx]T\y\x
Ty\yx1
P,,yTx$
1xUxUx
x]x]x
yTUUx]
]]U,,0P
UxxTP1y\
t(tTtPP
L,PH,L,tx
xTt0P,
PLt($
P($,PT
8y0UT
pPt$,
-\P0y\yxUx
tL$,L\
P,L0P
TxPxT
1x1xT
tLtHTx]
|1P]x
Ty,xt]yy
P,xLxT
TxTt1P,P
0PxTx
(PH0t
xH0tTxT
UTT]T\y0y0
yTyUP(tTxU
xTyt,
,y,t,
P1xTU
TP0tTx
TUx\]xUx
UP0yx
xQ(PPTP
t(Pp,
y,txU
UtTtTP
,LTt,
]x]x]
UtUxU
10T]x
1TUx]x
$P$P,
1T]x]
xTyPx
TtxPLTP
Tx$Tx
t(tTtLt,
U0Ty]
-1P-1
PUxUxU
xyxyTxP
0,-0-1
,0PL,P$
5U0-0
,xPx(ty
P0tTt,
x,$TP
,P(xH
xTt,L
(-\U-
,,tTt
xy0P\
P1x0T
P1T0y
P(P,T
P(P,Q($
tPxTc
PTxPx
tTxT|x
PTTLxt(t,P
PTxTxTt0
00P9x
]]y9u
10U\-
PTxTP
U,01-
T19Q0
UT1U1]UQ
T]U0Q
xUxTUTy
0P1P0PUy
]x,P,
,1x,-U
Q0-0U
$,L,xP(
P,PLxPx$
]1UU]
HPpTx
P0T,x,
U]UU9
P,xTx
PTxTxTx
]L0U0U
yUT]P
10U] 2U
0,xTy\]
P011T1
T1Ty101P
P0xTT$
-]UU11Ux
1Q\x\
UTU]T11T1
T1Py110y0U
0y0y1y1U
1U110
U11U0
]T]TU
Y1\1\
0y01-
0U1TU01
]UU]U
Q(T,PTx$
UYy9y
Y1U]U]-0-T
TtQxU
-10U1
9y9y1
U9110
uuPLQxtT
Y1]1-
$,-,P(UTP
t(xTyTxT
xTxTxPx,(P
L,P(t(
Tt1t0t
0t(tL,L
(,T,TP0P0,
)P0t,p1t1P
($P(,L,(P
$,P(P
t(tTtTP
(P(xPx
P(,,x
xtxtTt1P
(,PTxt0
TT0]1\1
1P1yT
]\UT0U
$P,P,,
Ux,Q$
yPxttT
PP100
UTyUxT
,(P-tTPQ
yTxPU,
Tx1y0y
,xU0yx1xUy
,May]x]
TyTTPL,
,P0P0,xt0
0xyxTyTyTy
xUxUyTyU
\UTU10Q0Q
TytUP
,P,PTxTxT
TxTxTx
0y1x1x1U0-
(T-T,T
1x,T-T,P(
,P,tTxTy
TyTxUxxQ
xQxUxuTtTU
PUP0t0P0y
1-),U,x,U,
$,P,TxxTy
yTyTxx}
TUT,0P0P
1P1P0Pxx,T
yTt1P-,
1P,M,
x,T,x,T,P
P0t0x,
L,x9y-
L,P(x,P
,PLPTtTx
$,(tTx
]x11)
)yTxUx
$,(T,$
1y,U0]
-,L,N
P0TxUT11
4y]y0Q
P,x0|0
x0xUxTP
x]x1P]xUUx
]x9U8T
1x]T0T]
Ux9x]
\y0U0
11\U8
1U8UU]
-,]119
5T1:Z
y11UTTU
1Q0P,
-TUxPT
0U1T1
,0-01
U0U1T]0
xx]x-t,
P$,(P,
1T1-1
TxUx1x1ty$
P$0t0P
0U0UTU
Tx,,x
H,L,(
,,xTTPP,
]TU-09
$-,U,x
0txxTuT
yY1-1
P,L,L
,U,Ux1
y0U]1]y
x]T]U
PPxTy
UT1T1
Ty]yUy
1,,1P
T-T-Ty
11y1xy
1T9x]P1x
Ty]y]
xxUx1x0U
P0P,P
-TTU0yTyxU
y\yyUy1
xy\yy0y
10P0y\yTy0
P),TP,$
,,U,UTUT
UT]Ty}\y
yy]yyx]x
]U1]a
TP0P,U
PU,U0P0QTU
P,MTx
T0T1U0
p312-4
l!N"$#
ftsTitleOverride
Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 4)
ftsTitle
Mining, Minerals and Metals (4 of 4)
Hundreds of stones are mined as gems. The most important is diamond (a form of carbon) because its great hardness makes it important for tools in industry. The major source of diamonds is South Africa, where they are recovered from rock by deep mining. Where gemstones have been eroded from rocks by water, they may be found in gravel deposits. Sapphires and rubies, for instance, occur in such deposits in Sri Lanka.
METALS
Element Abundance Major uses
(mineral) in crust
(parts per
million)
Aluminum 81 000 Conductors, aircraft,
(bauxite) ships, cars, foil
Chromium under Chromium-plating,
(chromite) 700 stainless steel
Copper 100 Conductors,
(many) alloys (brass, bronze),
coinage, plumbing
Gold under Source of value,
(naturally 0.005 jewelry, some
occurring) electronic uses
Iron 50 000 Structures, machines
Lead 20 Batteries, roofing,
(galena) radiological protection
Magnesium 25 000 Low-density alloys
(magnesite, for aircraft,
etc.) machinery, etc.
Mercury under Explosives, scientific
(cinnabar) 1 instruments, dentistry
Nickel under Nickel-plating, steel
(garnierite, 80 alloys, gas-turbine
pentlandite) engines, coinage
Platinum under Catalyst in chemical
(naturally 0.005 processes and in car
occurring, exhausts
sperrylite)
Silver under Jewelry, silverware,
(many) 1 photographic emulsions
Tin 1.5 Tin-plating, alloys
(cassiterite) (bronze and pewter)
Tungsten 1.5 Lamp filaments,
(wolframite, electronics, steel
scheelite) alloys, cutting tools
Uranium under Nuclear power
(pitchblende) 7 stations
Zinc under Alloys (brass),
(sphalerite) 80 galvanizing steel
Coal is a carbon-based mineral that formed over many millions of years as a result of the gradual compacting of partially decomposed plant matter. Three basic types of coal are found: lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite. Lignite (brown coal) has the lowest heat value, since it was formed more recently and contains less carbon and more water than the other varieties. About half the coal mined is used for generating electricity, with another quarter going to the steel industry as coking coal. The remainder is used in other industries or for home heating. In the past, coal was the chief raw material for the plastics industry, but in this function it has been largely superseded by crude oil.
* ELEMENTS
* THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* ENERGY 1
* OIL AND GAS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-Y-9U1
11Y1]
U11U1
119UY1
b]:: b
T1-1U
:^> >
-11-U11T
-11-11U
-1-1-
U11U1
1U11U11U
11U11
U1U119y
19y9U1
1U11UU
1]11U
1U1Y1
1U1U1
U1U11
1U1U1
1U91y11
$1T1P
1Y1U19
U11U1U1U
UU1U1U11
,U-T-
U11U1U
-Y1U1U-
Py-0,1
U-P1U
1U0y0
1U11U
,yx1,Ux
ltUx1QU
-11U:1-
1U1U1-
101T1Q
-1-1--
$-11P
1T-1T
1y1T11
]1T1T1U
1-11-
11,U01
T1U1T
U1U11
1-11-
1-1-1
U1U01T1
-1-11
1--1-
-T1-,UY1
-11--
-U1T-U0-
-11-11
T1U0U1
0Q1T-,
QT10Q0
1-1-1-1
-T1U011U
M01T-
--11TU
11T1T11$
TUy1T1
P1T10
1y0y1x
U,U0U,1
U0Q1,
1U]U]U
1]1U11
Uy10U
0U,1T-
U1T-T1
U101U
Q0--0
1T1T1P
yPMTyy
M\U1P
y0y1T1P
U0U0,
-UTy0U0
0U1T-
1,1y01U0U
UTUT1-0Q
,U0U0U,
,U1,1
11U1U
x1U,1U01
1y010U1
L,1-,
QUy]x]
y0UTy01U01
1U01T1Q0-
UTyy0
y11P10
U0Q0U1T
T-Q0U1U0
yxUyT
0y9U0U1
0y1UTyPyTy
y1Ty1T1T1-
]Q)T1
1P,U,0Q0
,U01T
1U0U0
TUT10U-1T1
T-,-0
T1UyUTU01
x1U01-
xUXy1
,y,10U-T1Q
T-T1,
0Q9-1
1yU,1yUU10
x10Q]T1U1,
M,-,P
-,--1
11U]U1U1
-11U1
yQUx]y
y0yUx1xU
U0U0-,U-
1,T,U
P-M0-
,U,U,
,U,T1P
xyUy0y]yTU
0U01U1
,U1T1,
Q0P10
y1y1U
Uy1T-0y
](U,10
1U1P1
1,U,U
Q,M1,
QUxUy
\yUxy1x1
yT10Q01U10
U--0Q
11U11
UT1U1T-0Q0
U11-1
Ux1-x
]yyx1yUx
1TUyTU,-U0
1U,)T,0U
x11T-0
Q0Q0U
-11]11
Uy1xyUx
xUT1xUy
Ty1x1P1U01
P1T1-
QT1,P,
? ;^?;;^:1
xUxy]yUU0
UU0-Q0
y-T11
T1,1Q0U0U0
-1]119
1: ??^?:^?
^:_?11-
Uyy]yyx11T
UU0y0-T-01
U,UUT
1P11P1T,
1y0--,
P,0U--P1
c;:_;:_:;^
yTyUxyTyUx
Uyxy0yT
,U-T11U0Q
1x1,1T-
1P10Q0Q11Q
b;?:c::_:
;^:;^;c^
UxUTUyUPy
yUTUyy1T-T
TUT1y0U1,U
1y01Ux1U0Q
01Q01T-T
1P01T,U1
;^;^;:_
:;^::
xUx]yT
xUyy1xU
,1-T1
,-11U-
1P1P0-U,P1
-0U1T-0U-0
1U,U1,U0,U
1,y0Q
TUyTy
yxU-0Q
0U-00U0
U1P-0
P1Q0-T1,U0
Q0-U,
U1U0U0Q0-0
1T1P1UTU1x
1QUU,TQU
-T-P1Q
:_:_:^;::^
110U0U
-0Q1P1Q
,1P10-1U01
T-1-,U01U0
Q011P1P
1-1Q0U-U-0
U,1U,1P1TU
1U1P1
U0-1Q
TUyTyU
1T1P1U
0-0U0U,10P
,U1P1T-
,-T1T0U0
-0-,-
-1-,1U
0-T-U,U0y1
1,UT1P110U
1P101U0U01
011TU0UUT
P-1-,
U11U1-
Uxyx]yy
Uy1TUU,1
U1T-1T-U0-
T11T1-U,U0
U-U0U-T1Q0
1U0U,1,UUP
0Q,U-
yx1yUxUyTy
1T1x11P1x
1T-1x1U0-U
0Q1,-,U,U
-1-0Q
T-T-0U010U
010Q101T10
Q0-1y0U0U0
U0U10Q0y
y1Q(1
TyyUx1TUU0
UTUUy1T1y-
0U0U,
,U,U,
110U,
T1Q0-T-0UU
0-U1011T1U
0Q-P1T1T1U
-0U1U0U0y
1,U1Q1x
-]19-11-
]xUUx
T1QTy1U01x
11P10U-0-T
-101P1Q0-U
0Q101T
1Q110-T1T-
U0U-,U1TUU
y1Ux1x1U01
x11PUx-
TUy1PUx
yUQT11T11T
UT1U-1T-T1
,-T1U
10U,U10U0U
0U,11,Q10U
01T1-T1T11
T10yTU-T1
--0y0y
yx1T1Q01T-
1P1T]U0-1P
11P1y1Q01T
UT1y01T11P
1Q0-T1Q
U1P10U0U10
Q0-0Q11T
01T-1T-UT
TUU1Q0Q1
Q,U1,
U1-1-
1x-yUyUyTy
UU--01y11T
10-U0UU0U1
T1U0U0UT
y01T-1P
1U110
P10,U,1
0-U0-1,U,U
1U01P-T1-T
11x110U101
01U-0
UxyUxyU
T-xUyy0Uy1
T-U0yY1T-0
UTy10yy0UT
UTUQ01P11T
U0Q1T1T1
-T,-,U011T
11T-U0Q10y
P1T10Q
--L1Q
-01-,U,
-11-
-x1U0U-
|1T1U
UTUT1,y11x
-101U01T-U
T-0y0-U1,U
,1U11P1P
P1T1x
,U0U,
yUQTyy
UTyy,-xUyT
0y0y1yy-T1
TUU0U-TUU-
01,U,U0U
U-T1Q
1y01T10
Q01-,TP1-1
0Q1,yU
)T-T1
,yTU0y
y0UTU01
U0U0yU
TUT1U0y
QTy1T
-1T1-T1T1U
0U010U,
1T1Q10U11U
11x1T
-UU1T1Q
y1yTyUyUy
Uyy-TUTUyT
yx10UUTUTU
xUxUyT-10y
xUy1T1PUU0
U0-U,1U0
1P10U0
Q0-T,U10U
10U0U
11-U1U
0UUT1
UxyUyTUUx
y1T1yy1TU
Q0-T1TUUT
U0-T-UT1T
Q0U-1
y11T1U1P
,U,y1y0Q
1T1x]yU
yUyyUyTQ
0yUxUxU1xy
U]Q0U01U
UT110QT
1,U0-1T1x1
0y0UT-1Q
1TUy0y1
M,U0UT--
U,11P1P
U,U,T1
-x1yyTUxUy
$1xUyU
xy0yT
U-yyx1-
Q01U1P1TUU
Q01QU,U1,
U1TUT1Q
1P-T1U-P
1T-T,1U01P
T1T-0U1,
-0Q1P
tUxU-T-T
$11yTyyUyx
Ux5yUx1x-
y0UUxUP
1UTy1
,01UTyUQ1P
-,-T-U
1xy1yUy
Ty1y-
y-0--
y0-U01P1,-
P1U0U
11] :
UTyy1x
1UTy-,x1
UUTy1yTU]
y-0U,11T-0
P1T10-U0-T
1U1T1P
U01P-P
uTy1UTy
UTUxyUU1xU
x1UTyx1U0
,11PUT1
1x10Q,UTUU
0-T101-
,--1Q
-,M1T11-,1
,U1yTy
y1y1U
UyTyUT1P1
yTy1$
11T-T
UU1P]y1P1
T-yT1T,
Q1y,1U0
U,U-L-T10-
Q,U,U0U0
-U0Q1P
--T1,Q
UUyUx1x]
P1P1y-T
Ux1U,
U1T-UU01
U,0Q1
TUU,M,U0
U1U-01
Ux1TUU0
1P-0U
1Q0,T1P
,T-1T-
01T1P1U
1y,y0-
y01P1
U,U,1P
UyUT1Ty
P1T-0U,
11U11
1U01-
11--1
TU0UTyUUT1
$10U,
-]U1P1,
y1y0y
-T1T-T
UyUy0UUT1P
1yy1T
101-01T
Q0Q1P1-x1
x11T-\
QTy1x
1xUU,yTyUy
)U-1Q
,1-1-
$]TUyTyU
UTU,yT
T1T-T1Q,1-
U,T-T-
1,Q1x1Q0y0
1UTQTy0
L1T,-P1Q
,11P,1U,
M0U0-
1-11-1
yTU1UU
10-x-T
-T,0Q
1T-UU-0y0
x1P1,P0-
L1,1U1
TUU,UTQ
UTQTU0-U1T
1,1P1,Q1,1
PUU1P
P1,-0P
,QTy0
y0UyT
1P11T
UTQ0U0-
01P1U
T-,U1,U,T1
UTU1TUUTUT
P10Q1y
U1UUyTyUx1
Q0U,1U0y0U
10101
TUT--T10Q1
t(1y,1QT
y0-P-y0UPL
-T-,U0-T
-11-1
T1xUy
xU0},
y0U-TU
T-U01
U,Q0U,1y-0
U1x1-UT1U1
P1T1Q
1TUTUQ0
-U0y1P
U01T-T-P
Q,yTU
]P1-T
1Uy1UT
Uy0UTU-T1Q
0UP101TUU0
y01,,UTQTU
,U0y]y,
,y0yTQ1U0y
Uyy0Q
-x1U0U0-1T
P01U,y]
UQ,U1T-T-1
Q1x1U,
UU01y
U0y0y-TU1x
y0yUP
1yyTyUxUxU
-TUTUUT
y01Q0-
U,1U0,U
U,10UT-1T-
1Ux1y0
y1T1UP1U0
Uy,UUT
T1yTyx
xy1x11
--T1,
y01U,1
xUUP-P
-x1T11x1P1
]U1x-0
U0QTQ1P
0y01P-U,Q1
-1T10
-U01U,Q-
1T11P
]y11-
P1yT1T1T
UU-xU1T11
1T-y,U0yy1
Q01Q0
T-UTU0y0yT
-1P1x-P
1Q010U
P-010
U1T-T-1T-
Uy1x-0yTQ(
1y1x1UTU1x
UTUU0y,
0Q0yUx1y10
Uy0y0Q0
U1P1U,1Q01
P1y1x
YTU1T-T1
P1T-UTy0y1
yTU0-xU1
U0UU,y0U0y
T1U1--L
UU--T1,
1Q01Q01U0-
UyUyx
1T1Q]u0y1T
UT-y1TU-1y
P1x110yUy
0y0QUU0U0U
,y0U011
Q0y0Q0
1x1T11U0U0
y01U,U1T
1U1U1
yUx1y1
yUxUU10yy-
UT,-T
y0UUTUUTU,
y0u1P
Uy1y,
1,Q0Q01U,U
,11P1
UTUYT1U
Uy0y0y0UU
$-U0y0-y
PLU0Q0
T-1TUU
U1y1U0y010
U,Q0U0y10U
Q,1UT1T10
y0UTU1xU
UTU0-UU
$UTy1TUx1x
1x1x1x-x1P
1U,QUU0y0y
10uUT1yT1Q
:-1U9
-Y11U
Q-1T-
yTyx,U
-T1-P
y1U0Q(U1
-PUPLy0
$1P1yTyT
y1-T1-0U,1
Q0UTy01y
U01x1
,0Q10
y0U-0
1TUxU
T1T]Q
y0P1P
,yUx1TU
yTU0y
PUTUT
Q0y0yUy1T
1Q0U0U-T1Q
UTUTUU01Q0
yxUy0U0y1y
1xU1T
1Q0-L
yTUxUyx
Uy1U1y1
TQ1Ux1y0,U
,y1T1P
UU-1,
--T-L
1P-yUT
T1P0y1,
1,1x10Q0y1
,U0yUTUy1x
-Ux1yP11PU
x1y0UTU-
1T-1PUT
11Q0-11
-T1xy
T1QTU0yUyT
U,y1-U0yQ0
-U1P1U0y-T
1TUUTy10UT
U1T1UT
TyU1$
1xUy1PT
1,U1TU
x1yy0Q0U0
TH$-y1y
1yTy0y1T-U
TUUTy0y10y
x1x1y0U10U
0-y0Q01P11
T1y10UTyyU
1--1--
xy1yT
-TP$1,M10U
$$-yQ0
xyUyx1TUU0
y1x1U,UT1y
0y,1yTU,1U
,U,1U0U11T
1QTUT1xy
91U1]
,U]y1y
,U1T1P,
TyUxy1UxUy
1y0-x1PUUT
U0yU0y1U1T
-UUx-y11U,
1xUxU10UT1
1T1U,uT
y]xyU
-U0U0U0
]yUxyyUxyT
yx1y0yTUy0
y10UTyUxUx
1,yTy01T1x
1x1T1TUyyT
U1-1-
yUU]y
yxUU0-y1y
UT10U
$PTyyTy
yUxyTyUxyU
yUTQTyTU1T
UUxyyUU0QT
yUUT1y0UUT
-y0Q10yUTU
xUx1x-
::2^2^
y\yUUTyy
-0y0y,$
y,U0U1
$U,UyUyU
yTyUyy0yy
xUy0y1Tyy1
xUyT1U0U1x
y1xUyyUxUx
^^:^21
91--x
,1T-Ux1
yUxUU
yUyUxUT
yUT1TyyTyy
TUyyTyUTyU
y0UUxyT
yUU1T
Uy1x1
UxyyU
-L11x
PQP(y
yTy1xyU
-xUyyUPyyT
yxUyyT1xy
0y0yyU
U1-,t
,yU-0
yTyxUxUyy
yTyTy1
xUUxyyUyx1
xUxUy
UxUyy1x1
tUx-P(
xUxUxyU$y
yUt]QU
xyTyyU
yUTUx
y-yUt
TyTyTU
y1y1y0
-x10y0
TyxyyUxU
0y0U0yU
YP($y
yxUyyT
UxUyxUyTyT
yyUy0uP
--)U,-1
0y0yU
uP$u-yU
yxUyTUy
T-U,U
Uy1xy\
yUy0y0
yyxyT
Tyx-,
,-P1U1-
10yTyU
1UT1x
UxUxyTyU
yUx1x
TUyUxy
Ux1UU
y]UyT
10U1-P
yxUxyTyx1x
1xUy1
UP1yU
x]xUy
yTy]UUyy$y
Ty]yx1y0P
,L-P1
y0y1yUyyT
PUxUU
xy]y1T
Tu,-y,U
UxyTy
UyQUTyU
1yTUy0yU
11xUx
UTyx1xUxU
UTyyT
Q10U0y]y
0UxUy
$yTUUx
y\y1y
TUxyyU
xUTUQ
-U,U-010
U1y0PU
1QUT1Uxy]
$y1yy
yTyyx
t-y0U1,
UUTUU1PUTU
yxUxUyUQ
yU]y]
,yUxy
PUxyTy
,xUxUx1
UQTU,
U-T1TUUy1T
1yTUyUy1x1
-TyxUyTy0y
PyTyU
tUyUTQ
PtUyT
U0y01UTU0y
UxUxyUT1yU
U0y1y
x1yUxy
PUxyT
xUPPp
-yy1T
xUT1yTUy1y
1xUy0UUy1x
u]U0-
,yyUy
TU]y]
yUUTQ1T
UTyUU0U,yx
yUyUx
yyUyUx1
x1xUx
0yTUU
UyxUyU
y0yUxy
Uxy]yU
yyUxy]x
Ty1y]U0QTy
UxUyUx
UT1yUy1xUx
yxUyyxUx
y\ux,
U0yUyy1
xUxUT
Uy]yUy
0UUTUx
U1UUT
UxyUx1
,U0y1yUx
]yTyy
\y0yyT
yTyyUx
,1y0UU
Ux1xUx
y]yU0UUx
yUyUL
,1T1U1
$101xU
T1U1x1
1TyUx
t1x10U
0yTyUy$
y0yUy
T1U1Q
1-xy]y0
yUU0U
TyUUx1xy1U
0U,1T
y1x11
UyUx,x
-L1Q)
0yx1Q
,U0-M1Q
UUyUU1|U
y0yy1T]
-T)U1
UTyy1
xUy1TUU
-xy]yT
yUy01y
1P1Ty
(U,11
yUTUyUT1U1
T1T11y
1Q),-
1TUy1y1y
tUyxU
],1P1T
UyUTUTUy
yUT1Q
Uxyy$
$T,T1-M,
y1yyU
P1Q01
yUxy0
yyTyT
U0y1x
y]QUyy0y1x
1U,1P
TUy0UTU]
,yUy1
U1Tyy
UyUxU
(1--,
1T1TUyT
]U0UT
UxUy]
,UUyUyUTUy
y0yUyyxUy
$Ux1UT
,1--(
yUQTQUTU
TQ]1U-$
,U-1U
uTyy,yTy
-xUxUxyT
yxyUyUyy
H]x1yTQ
,yx1QUt
)T,Q0Q1-
,1U0yT
,1P)T1
yUQ0yT
y0yUH
P0-P1,1Q1
QTy,tP
yTUUt
0-T1,U
1yUyx
1xUyyP
UT110
Q0Q01Q
UUTy1y
Q]y10
-1T1U
$-U0y,
U01-1T1,
1TU-t
$10y0U1T
U01-P
,L-U-
yT-\yP(
L1UUy010
10U1-T
0Q01T-
-U1U1
$1011T10
UTyyTy
0U1Q01-U
,M,U1
1U110U0U0U
U1Q)U
-T1T-
10U1--
UyT-y
,1T1y1
U0y1,Ux
01U110U0UT
U0U0y
xUyUH
Uy10U1UQ
0U0U,U1-T1
Q1yUyH
1T1TU
UT11T11y]y
TUT11U
1xyy11P10y
]P1UUy$
y01P10
Q1x1y0
]yP1xy1y0y
T1TU1T1y-
UT-Ly
x]U10
0U-1T1P
Ux1U0
UxQ]y
xUy1T11T1U
y0U1U1y
UQ1UTyy
01x-xU
UTUPU
UTUy]y1
U10-y1PU
yUT-0y10
U1T1yUy01
,M0UyU
UTUTUUyx1U
0Q0y0QU
0yx11-
-xUxy,$
p314-1
ftsTitleOverride
Iron and Steel (page 1)
ftsTitle
Electric-arc furnaces take a charge consisting entirely of cold scrap - hot metal is not used. Because very precise control of the composition of the final product is possible, such furnaces are generally used to make the more expensive steels, including alloy and stainless steels. Modern arc furnaces produce up to 150 tons of steel in less than 1 1/2 hours.
Iron and Steel (1 of 5)
The Iron Age began in the Near East in the 2nd millennium BC, and we still live in it today. Iron and steel account for almost 95% of the total tonnage of all metal production. Ships and trains, cars and trucks, bridges and buildings - all these and thousands of things besides depend on the strength, flexibility and toughness of steel.
Iron is extracted industrially from naturally occurring ores. The two most important of these are iron oxides - hematite (Fe 2O3) and magnetite (Fe 3O4). Mixed with carbon and heated to 1500 degC(2730 degF), iron oxides are reduced to metallic iron, the carbon combining with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This process is called smelting. In the Middle Ages charcoal was used to provide the carbon, but in 1709 Abraham Darby (1677-1717) of Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, England, succeeded in smelting iron with coke, which could readily be produced from coal. This made possible a huge increase in iron production during the Industrial Revolution. The first link in the production of iron is the blast furnace, in which iron ore is reduced to iron. The biggest modern blast furnaces are huge constructions up to 30 m (100 ft) tall, with walls more than 3 m (10 ft) thick, and capable of making more than 10 000 tons of iron a day. The iron produced in the blast furnace is still contaminated with some residual impurities. Depending on the ore, it usually contains some 3 to 5% carbon, 1% manganese and 3% silicon.
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
WTN.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"WTN"
defaultPage
fName
).tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Molten steelU
**++*
VW23V
^W2232W3V
W3W33V3,23
d^^]^]9W3W
33W3V3V-V2
]^9]]3W323
]]^]^d
]^]W33W233
W2W3V3W3{
]]W3W332W2
W32W3V3
]^]W]XW]32
W2W3P3
VWVV{
^]^^d
]WX]3W
-V323
]]312
2P2WW]W3
V3V3WW2W,V
2,WW,
3W2,1,2,23
W3W323V3V2
3V323P323V
,V,2,V3V
,+,++,++,+
^^d^^d^
^^9X3W2,2,
V,W,W2P3
,2,2,2
PW2Q2VP
+,+,,
9W],2
,V,V,2P3
WV2V3
,,+,+
,+,++,+
^]^]^3]32,
2W2,2W2P2
c^]^]^
^^]W]4W32,
,,Q2,
2,2W2,2
]^]^]
]^^3W9W322
2,32-WV
WW,2Q2
,,P,V,
,+,++
^]^]^
]^]^]
^]^]33]
W33W322,23
3-2-22
^]]^]^]^]
^]^]^]^^
^W^W^W:W^3
W3W3]3W3W
3W3W2W2,2,
P+O++
]^]^^]^]^^
,2-2X
^^]^W]W]X
]WW9W]3]W9
3W3W3W332W
,2,2,
+,++,++,+
^^]]^]^^]
]^]^]
^W^3]3W3W4
W9W33,32,,
+,+,++
]^]^^]^]^
]323+2+2,V
]^W^W]]XWX
33]3WW33W2
3,2,2,2
,++,++
++O++O
]^]^]^]
2,22X
^]^^]
^]X]3W3W33
+,++,
++,++
O++O+O+O,+
W^]^]^]^^]
^]^]^W
32,1+2,23
^W^W]X3]3
3W3W33W2,2
++O+OP
3]^]^]
]^W]X]
]]W2,3
23W^X
^^]X]^^]
]^XW3W3W
,+,+,
+,++,+,+,+
+O++O+O+O
]^]^^]^]^^
^323,W3W
^^W^^]^W^W
^W^X]XW
V332-2,2,
,+,+,+
O++O+O
^]^]^]^]^
]^X^WX]
]W33]39
W]W]^W]^]^
]^W^W:3W
O+O++V{
]^]^]
]^]^^X
^]W]W]W^d
]W^]X]X]^X
3WW33W323W
,,22,
,+,+,+,
++O+O++O+
O++O,V
O+O+O+O+
]^]^^]]
W^W^W^]
^^]^]^^
^^]W]W39W3
2W]WW]W]WW
]WW3W232Q3
O+O+PV
]^^W^]^]
d^^]^]WW3
3233W33
,++,+,
O+O+O
O+PO+O
]^]^]^X]X^
39W9W323WV
W3V3VW3WV3
2W,V3,22,
,+,,+,++,+
+O++,
]]^]^]X]^X
^^]W:]WW3W
3W32322W2-
322W2
2-2W2,,
,+,++
O++O,,P{]
^]]W9^W]X
]^]X]
]X3]9W332W
3V-W3
V3W,W22Q2
+,++,
+,+,,
+,+,++
O++O++O+
O++O+,
^X]]:]X]W^
W^W^]^^
3]:W9W3W23
3V3,W2,2P3
3V,3P32-2
+,+,,+,,
+O+O,,{
X]W^]^X^W
W9X9^
23W2-V32P3
,+,+,+,
O+O+P,
]^X]^]^W^W
]X9]3WW3W3
3V33V,3
2V-V2P3,2
O++O+O++
:W^]^WXW
^^d]^3]332
33V33-V,3
-V2,3
,,+,+,
,,+,+
,++,+
+,,+,+,+,
,+,++
O++O+O,O+P
^3^]^3^
W^]X]^]^]^
]^^W3W3W2W
2Q2,3
2-V2V,
++,++,
^^d^32
O++O+O,PW
]W^]X]^W ^
233W23V3V,
W2W,22-V2-
2,2,2,2
,+,+,+,
++,++,
^]^^]
3]9^W]
]]^X]^]^^
]^3]W3W32W
2W2-3,3
V-V2W,2
+,+,+
^^d^^d
^^93232
O+P+,
^]4]3
]]^]^]
233WW2W22-
V3V3,,2,-2
2,+,,+,+,+
++,+,++
++,+,
,++,++,
O++O+
d^]]9^^
W3W2V2W
+,++,
+,+,+
O++O+O
O++O+O
O+,PW
^^]^]^]
^]]:W]^]^]
2-2V,3V-
+,+,+
,++,+,+,++
O+O++O++
O++O+O+O,P
]]^]^]^]^]
^^]^X]^]W^
d^^]9]33W
33W3W2W3W2
V,3V3,2-2-
,3,2,
O+O,P
^]^]^]^]
]^]^]^^]^^
W^W]^]X]
23W3233,32
,,2,2,
+,++,+
+,,++
+O+,,
]^]^]X]^]^
]X]X]X^^WX
]4]^]
W233W,W2,2
O+O++O
^]^]]^]
W^]^^]]
]^]X]X]W
X]]33W3323
2W323,3P32
+,+,,++,+,
+,++,+,
++,,++,
^]]^]^]^]X
X]X]X^X]W^
W^W^W
949W3W3W3W
233P3,22-2
,++,+,++
O+O+O
^]^^]
^]^]^]^
]^]^^]^]X9
X]X^W]
W]X3]33232
33V3,3
+,,+,+,
^]]^]
^]^^W
]X]X^W
9W3W3W3W3W
,33V32,W
++,+,+,
+,+,,+,++,
++,+,
^]^]^]^]
^]^X]^^]
^^W^X9X
]X^]^^
^^X]X
2-2323-V-2
Q22,2,2,,
,+,+,+
^]]^]
^^]X]X
]W^]^W^^
W3W3W2W3V3
V-W232W3
+,+,+
,+,+,,
+,+,+
]^]^]^^
^]^]^]^]^X
]^^]^^]
W^W^X]:W:
-23-3,32-V
,+,+,+
X^X^^
]]^]^]^]
]^W^^X]X^X
]^^W3W
-323-W23W2
3,2,2
+,+,+,+,++
,+,+,
^^]^^]^]^X
]^^X]^W^^W
^^]X]X
-23,3-323,
,,+,+,+,
+,++,+
X^]^X]X
^^]]^^]^^X
]^^X^^W^W^
,+,+,
,+,+,
,++,++
]^]X]^^
W^XX]
W^X^W^W^X^
^d^^d
+,+,+
O+OWV{
]^^]^^X]X^
^X^^X^
^]]^]
^]]^]X]X]X
^]^W^X]W^W
^^]X^W^X^^
O+O+O++,
X^]^^
^]^]^]^]
^]^^]^^]X^
W:WX^X]X]X
^X^]^^X
W3W32332
W^]X^]^X^^
]^]^]^^]^W
^X]X]X]W^]
X^X^]X^X]^
-3,3,2,
^^W^^
W^]^X
39,9,,
^]^]^]^^]
]X]W^W:WW^
]X^]^X]^^X
^]^]^]X
^^X]3W
W33W3323
++,++,+
,+,+,++,
+O++O+
O++O++
W^^W^]X]X^
W^X^^]
^^]^]39
,2,2W
^]^]^]^]^W
^]X]^X]X]X
]XX]X
^^X^X^X^X
3X3W33W3W3
3V3Q23,2,,
W^]^]X^^
X]^X]X
]32,2,]
]^]^]^]^]X
]^W^^X^W^W
X^XX]X]X^]
W^33W34W3W
33-23,2-,2
+,+,,
++,++
+,+,+
++O+O+O
+O+O+O
]X]X]X]XW
^^]X22X]
^]^]^]^]^^
]X]^W^W^WX
^W4]XW^W^X
^WXXW
]^X]3W3W33
X^^X]X]X
^^W^^W
^^]3W
]^]^]^]^X]
X]^]X]3^WX
]X]XX^]^]X
]^W^W^X9X^
X3]4W
-2W,2
P,,P,
+,+,+
++O+O++
X]X^W^W
W^X]X
^]^]^]^]^^
]^]X^WX]X^
W^XXW^W4W
^WXXW^X^X
]X]^W^X]4]
4WW3W3W
2V,2,3,,3
,+,+,
+,+,+,
++O++O++O
]|]XX]X]^]
]^]^]^
]^^]^]X]^W
]^WWXX]X^X
^W4^X]X^X^
^X]X9X^W
XW^W^WX9W3
V3W2-V2,V2
+,+,+,+
++O++
]X^X^
X]X^^X
]^W^]X]XWX
^X]XW^XWXW
XWXXW^X]XX
^^]X^3^X
^4^X]:W
2W2,3,2,2,
+,++,
,+,,+,+
]^^]^^]
^^]^]W^W]
^W^W^XX^XX
^WX^XX]
^^X^XW^X
]XW^W4W3W
-32-V3V-V3
+,+,,
+,+,+
,+,,+,
O++O+O++O
X^^X^^
^^]^^
]^^]^^]X^X
^XW^XXW^W^
X^X^XX]XX]
^X^X^
XW4W^X39W3
3W3V3-3V3-
23-V-2-
^^]^^
X^]XX^X^X^
X^X^W^XW^X
X^WXW^X^WX
2W,32Q3V3,
2P322P3
,,P+,+,
+,+,+
,,+,+,
X^X^X]XW^
W^X^X^X^^X
X^X^X^XW^W
4X]3W33W33
W3,3Q2323,
3,3P3,V
^X^WX]
XX^XX^X
^X^W^
W:W4]3W33W
23-W3P323
2PW,2,
+,+,+
+,+,+,,
,+,+,
++,+,++
O++PVV{
]^^X]XX]WX
X^X^X^X^X^
X^XWXXW4W3
W33W3-
233W-
++,+,+
++,+,
+,+,+,+
++,++,
O+O++O
W^XX]X
X^X^X^X^^
WX]4W:W^3W
W3-32-W3W,
2,3,2V,V,
P,,P,
^^]^^X^
^X^^W
X^^X^X^^X^
]^X]X^X
^^X^X^X
^^X^X
X^XXWX^X9W
3W3W3W
+,+,+
++O++O
X^^]^^
W^X^X
X^W^X]X^3X
-W33W3
++,+,
+O+O++PV{
^]X]^]^
X^X]X^X^XW
^X]XX]X^^X
^X^X^X^X^X
X^X^X
X^X^W93W
2W32Q2,
,P,P,
,P,,P,
]^^W^]^^]
X^^]^^]X^]
X^WX^X^W^X
^X^]^X^XW4
X^^W^X^W
2-33,32-,2
,,V,,
,+,+,+
,+,++
+O+O++
W^W^]^|
X^^X^X
^^]^^
X^X^X^WX^X
X]XWX^X]X]
^XX]XX^]^^
X^X^^X93X3
]33W3W3-V3
,2,2P,2,,
++O++
^]^]^X^^W
X]^XW^X^X^
X]X]X^W^XX
]X^W^W^3W
3Q23,
++,+,+,
,+,+,++
O+OPV
X^W^^X^X]X
]^^X^X^^X^
X^XX^X^X^X
X^^X^X^X^X
W^4^3W3XW3
W33W,W32-2
++,++
VV{W|
X^X^^X^W
W^X]^X]X^^
X]X^X]X
X^X^X^X]X
3^X]X]4W9
W332-2Q2,3
,P,2,,V,,
+,+,,
,,+,,+
+,+,+
,+,+,
,+,+,+
X^X^^X]^^]
^^W^]
W^W^XX^X^X
]X^X^X^X^X
^^X^X^^
]X]X]X^W3W
V3V32-V2-
,P,P,2,,
+,,+,,
W^W^X^X^^X
^^X^X^X
X^^X^X^XWX
WX]33W3-3-
3,2-2,2,P,
,V,V,
+,+,+
++O++O
++O+PV
^X]X]X^^]X
^^X]X^
^XX]XWXX^W
^W^X^X^X^X
X^^XXW:X^X
2-2-V2,2,
+,++,+
++,+,
O++O+O
X]X]X^W^X]
^^X^^
^W^W^XW^
^X^XX^X^X^
W^WX]X^WXW
X]33W3W33-
2,32,-
+,,+,+
{W|]X]X]^^
X]X^^]X
^X^W^
W^XW^X^W^W
X]X^X^X^^X
X^4]X^W^X^
XX3W3W
2-2,3
+,+,,
^X]^^]X^X
^^X]X^
W^W^WXW^XX
^X^X^X^XX^
X]XWX4W4WX
X]X3X9W3W3
W-2,3,,2,2
,,2,,V,V,V
X]X]XX
]X^X]^W
X]X^WX^W^X
X]XX^W^X
9XW^XW^XW^
V3,2P-2P-V
V-P2P2
,+,+,++
X]X^W^X
X^^W:WX^X^
W^X]X^X^X^
X^WXX3XW^X
^3X3W
W3W2-2,22,
,2,2P3,
,+,+,+
X]|]X
X^^X^X
X^XW^WX]XW
^XX^XW^WX^
X^^X^
X^XW^3X^
WXW9X3WW33
,V,2,,
,++,O
^W^X^^X^X
X^^X^^X^XX
^XX^XW^WX^
X^X^X^
X^X]XX9X9X
2,2,2,,
,+,+,+,+
,+,+,
+,+,+
^^X^X
X^W^WX]XW^
W^X^X^^X^X
X^X]XWXXWW
4W3W3W
,V,2,,22-2
+,+,++,
^^X]^^X
X^X]X]XW^X
WX^^X^X^X^
X^X^]3^XWX
33XW3X3X3W
3W-2-
W,P3,P3
,+,+,+,
+,+,+
,+,+,
+,+,+
W^WXX]XW^X
WX^W^X
X]^X9X3XX3
3XW33W3X3W
-2P3V,V,2-
V,3P-
,+,+,+,
,,+,+
^^X^X]
X^X^X]XX]X
W^XWX^
X^X^X^WXWW
4WXW33XW4W
3W-W-3,-,3
-W,2-
V,,P,,
,+,+O+
X^X]X9W3^X
]XW^X]X^^|
X9XW:WXW33
33WQ3Q2Q2-
P3,P3
W^X^]
X]X^W^W^WX
]XW^X^X^
^X^^X^WX
]4WX3W3XW3
XWX3QW33-2
-3,-3-W3,3
,,P,,
OO+PP
^|^|^
X]XW9X]X]X
^XX^^X^X^X
X^XX^3XWX3
X3W33W3WW3
3-W-3P,3Q3
P3Q2P-3P,V
,+,+,
X^^X9]X]X^
X^X^W^
^X^^XX]
XWX3W3W3W4
WXW3X3WW3Q
3-3Q2-3,3,
,+,,P
W{^{X
XW]XWW^W]
W^X^W3X3W3
W3W3X3XWWX
3W-W-V33Q3
,Q,,2
P,P,P,,
,+O,PWX{|]
X^X^X^]
^]X^]XW
9^3W^W]W^W
^X^X^X]X3
XW3W3W3XWW
XW3X3W3W3W
-3P32-2-
,+,+,
]X{^X^
WXW9XWX]WW
]W^X^^X^^X
^X^X^^W
:WXW4W3W3W
3W4W3XWXWX
3W-3P3Q3,-
V-V,Q,,2P,
,PPWW|]W|]
X^]X]X]W]9
X]W]W^W^X
WXW4W3X3W4
WXWXWW3X3W
3W3W3-3V-2
,,2,P,,-
,PPW|WW]WW
]W^]^W^
^]X]^W
XW^W^XWXW^
XWX]X^^W
X^X]X:WW4W
3XW3XW4W4W
XW3X3W-W-3
P3Q2-2P,P2
O,O+,
P,PWW]W^W]
X^^W^]X
XW^XWXW^X]
XW^X]]X^
^X^^X^^
WXX3XWX3XW
^WXWW3WX3W
3W-2Q33,-V
,P,,P,,
]WW9WW]^
XW^^W^XW^
W^W^WX]XW^
XX^WX3XWX4
WXW:W3X3
3W3W-3W-2Q
,P,,-
W]X3]
W^]^X^^
X]X]XX]X^W
^XW^]]^^
X^^X^XXWXX
WXX^XWXWX3
W3XWW4W3Q3
W-W,-3-2-2
W^W^]
X^X]XX3^W^
XWXXW^
X^XXW:X3X^
WXW:X^3XWX
W4WW3W3W-2
3-W,W-
,-,W,3P-,,
V-,V,
,P,-V
,,2P,V
,P,,P
]WX]W^]
X]X^X^W^W^
X^XW^X^|
X^^X^XWX]X
3X^XWXWWX3
W3WW3W3W-W
-Q2-3-W-V-
Q2-V,,3
,P,PP
]]W^W^W
XW^XWX]WX]
XX]XX^X]X^
X^^X^X^XW^
XXW^XWXW3X
3WWXW4WXW-
W3-3-3Q32-
-2W,,
,P,V,
,P2,,-
,P,P,,
,P,,P,,
PQW{^
WW]X]
^^X^X]4^W
^3]W^WX^XX
X^^W^W^W4]
XXWX4XXW
3XWW4W3W-W
3P3,W-W,3Q
-P3,2Q
,P,P,,
P,QWW^
^]^X^
WXX]XX^X^X
W^XX]X^X
X^^X^X]XW
^WX:WXX]X3
3WW3-W-W-3
W-,3-W-3Q2
-,32P-2-
,P-,Q,Q2Q
,,P,,P
P,Q,W|^
X^X]X4]XX]
XX^X^X^XX^
X^X^X^X4W^
WX:WXXW4XW
X3W3WX3W3W
3-2W,-W3P3
Q3,3Q3,P-V
Q,2P,2
P,PP,P
]^W^X]X9XW
X]XW^XX^W^
X^^X^X^X^W
^X3XWX4WXX
WX^WXWX3XW
3WQ3W-3W--
3Q3Q3Q,2,-
2,Q,,
,,P,,P,
Q,P,,P,Q,3
,-P,V,
,P,P,
,,P,,
P,P,,
,,PPWX^
^X]X]XXWX^
XX^^X
^X^X^XXW
WX3X3W4
4-W3--W3Q3
W-W-3-,3Q-
Q-2Q,-2-
,,P,,P,
]X^X]X]XWX
^W^X^X^X^^
X^X^^X3XWX
W4W4W4WXXW
XXW4W3WQW3
W3Q33Q3-2-
W-Q-,W-
,V,,W
Q,,P,P-
V-V,-
+,P,O
,P,PP,QWX
]X^X]X
X^X^X^X
^XXW^X4XWX
WX3XW4WXQ3
W3Q3Q33W-3
Q3Q,3Q2-Q2
-W-P3P3P-,
,,2P,,P-
2-P,-
,P,,P,
O,PP,P,P
X^XX]X
XX^X^X^
^|^^X
^X^|^X^XX^
WXWXW4XWX3
3XW3XWQWW-
W-W3-W-3-3
Q--,W-P-V-
,,V,P
,P,V-
-,,P,V,,
P,,P,Q,,Q,
O+,P,P,PPW
X^X^^X^XX
^XX^X^X^^X
X^|^X^X^X
WXXWXXWXXW
4W3W4W-W3Q
-WQ3Q3QW-W
-W-W-W-Q3Q
,W-P-,P-
P,,-P,,-
,P,,P,,
,PQWW
^X]X^X
^|^X^|^X^^
^^X^X^XX^
W3XWX3WWXW
Q3QW-WW3Q-
WQ3Q3QW-W-
2-V-Q2Q-P3
,,P-P,P,
,-P,P
,,P,-
P,P,V
|^X^X^^X
X^^|^X
^^|^X^X^
^XXWXXWXXW
XX3XW3W4WX
Q3W3XW3WQ3
Q3WQ3Q3QW-
Q3Q3Q-W,-Q
,-P,Q,P-
P,,P-
,-P,Q,,P
X^^|^
X^^X^X^XX^
3WXWW-WQ3W
3W-W-WQ3Q3
3-3-,W,QQ,
W,,P,P,,P,
P,P,2Q
,PP,P,P,
,,P,-,P,Q
,,P,P,P-
P,QW|
^XX^X
X^X^X^WX^X
W:XWXXW4WX
X4WXW4W4WX
W-W3X3WW-W
-W3QW-W-3Q
3P-W-3-,W-
P3,2-
3,P,2
-,-,,
-P,-,,P
,O,PP,
^W]^W^X^
|^^X^X^|^X
X^^X^^X^WX
^X^XXWX^3X
WXXWXW4W4
3W-WXQWWQ3
Q33W-3-3Q3
Q3-3-3Q2-W
-32-2Q
-,,3P-
P-P,P,,P
P,QWX
X^XX^X
X^^X^XX^XX
WXW^XWX4XW
343XW4W3Q3
WQW3W3WX3W
3-W-3Q3W3Q
3-W-3P--3,
3Q,Q2,3,-2
,,2,,P
,P-P3P-
3,,P-
PP,P,PPQVW
]WW]W
W]X]X^X
X]X^XW^X]X
^3XXWXWXW4
XXWX3W-W3-
WW-W3QW-3Q
3W3-W3W-W3
W-W-3-32-W
,,-,P-,P
W]WX]W]^
^X]|^|^^
XX^XX^
WXX3XX4WXW
W3X3W4W3-W
-3WWQX3WWX
3-WW3Q3W-W
-W3Q3Q3Q-3
P3Q,Q2-2-2
P,,V-,,Q,-
P,PQW{
]]W^]X]X
X^^X^XX^
^WXXWX3XX3
W4W3W3R3W-
WQ3W3WQ3WQ
WW-W3Q3W3W
-W3Q3-3W-3
-2-2-V-,Q2
P,,Q,Q2,2Q
,P,P,-,
-,,P,
2,-P,P-
,P,PP,PWX
^]]X]^^]X
X^^X^
]XXW4X3XWX
4WXX3WX3XW
3Q3W3QWR3X
WQ3W-W3Q3W
-3Q3W-3Q3,
-2-Q2-
3,P,P-,
-,,-V,,-
,P,PQW{^
X^XX^X^
3XXWXW4XWX
3WWX3XW3Q4
Q3QW3WWQ3W
3Q3-W3W-W-
3Q3W3Q3Q3-
-3P-2--P-
,P,,Q,
,P3P-P,-
Q,,-,Q
,P,QWW
]^]^^
]^X]W4^W:X
WX^W4W4XWW
4WX3X3WW3X
3W3XW3W-W3
W3Q3-W-3Q3
W3Q3-W-3-3
-W-W,3,3,3
,-,,-,,-,,
,-V,2,,V
,,2-,P
,,P,P
,PPW|
W^W^X^XWXW
XX3XXWXWX3
XW4WW3W33Q
WRW3Q3Q33Q
3Q3W3W-W-W
-W-W-W3,3W
-W,W,W,-V-
-P3P,
,-V,Q
2-,3,,-2
P,P,,
,PP,,P
X]4WX]XX]X
X3X]4WX34W
X3XW3WXW4
3W3W3W3W-W
W33Q3-3W-3
Q3-W-W3Q3W
,3,-2-,3,,
-,Q2P3,
,,2,,3
3,,-2-
P,2,-
Q-QW|^
^^X^X^^]^W
^XW^3XX3XX
WW4WX3XW4W
WXW3WW3XQW
3W3W3W33-3
Q33WW3-W3Q
33W--W-2Q3
P3,Q2-,W,,
-V2Q2,-
,,3,3,3,
,,2,,-,,
,,P,QP-
X^X^XW^XX^
WXX3XXWX3X
3X3X3W4W4W
3X3X3W3X3Q
4W4Q3WW3W3
Q3--W3-3Q-
W3W-3Q3-2-
-2-W,-2Q,,
-2,,P,-,
-,,-,,
-,Q2-2-2Q-
P-Q-V--Q,-
,Q,,-,-2-,
P,,P,,P,P-
P3,W{^
^X^X^X^X^X
^WXX]XXW4W
XWXWX3XX3X
W4WW3WW4W-
W3W3W3W-3Q
3W33WW3Q3Q
33W--W--W-
W-W-W-2Q-,
W,3,Q,Q
,,W,W,Q2-
-V-3-Q2Q2-
2--3,3-,-2
-Q3,-,2Q2-
,,-2,,-,,-
,P,Q,QWX
X^X^XXWX^X
^3XXW^XX3X
3X3X4WW4W3
X33433W3X3
X3X3W3W33Q
3X-3-3W3-W
-3W3-2-,3,
3,3-2-2-,,
Q2-2,-
3,W,Q-,Q
-,Q-,Q,-P-
Q3Q,-,-2Q-
,,Q,W,,-2,
P,,-,,-,,-
,P,P,P,P,
,P,Q,QWW
^^X^X^X^
X^X^XXWXW:
XWXWXXWX3X
W4XXWW4W43
W4W4W3W3W3
W-W-W3W-W-
W-W3Q3W3Q3
Q3-W-Q3Q3P
-V-,-2-2-W
-,-3,--2
W,3-2--3,2
-,-3Q--
-,,-,
P,2,,2
P,PP,P,Q-W
|{^|^X^X^X
^X^X^W^XX]
X^XWX4W4W3
^X3XWX3WW4
WW3W4W3W3W
4W3X3W33W-
3W-3W4Q3X-
3Q33-W-3,3
-,3-2-,W,-
-P,,Q,Q2Q3
3P3P3P3,-V
-,-,Q--V--
-,3P3,
Q,,-,,3
-2,,2,-,,2
-,,Q,-
P,P,P,,P,,
P-W-W{^
^X^X^X^^X^
^X^XW4WXWX
WXXWXW4XW4
XWW4WXWWXW
3W3W4W3X3Q
-3W-W4W-W3
Q3W-W-W-3Q
3-3Q3-V-
-2-,3P,2-
WV-W3-V-3-
,,3,Q2-2-Q
-2-W-3Q3-W
--W,3,-2,-
-2Q,-,,-
P,PP,PP,Q
X]^X^^X
X^X^W^XW
^XX3X4WX4W
^X3XXW4XWX
3W4W4WW3X3
W3W3W3W-W3
Q3W4Q3W-3-
W3QW-W-
,-,3-P-V-
-2Q,Q,-P-,
W-W,Q3P-,3
,W,Q,3-P--
Q,-P-
-,3,-
W--P3P3
P,P,P,P,,P
,,P,P-QWW^
X^X^XX^XX^
X]XWXWXXWX
WXXWXWXW3W
W3WWX
3X33WX3W3W
3-W33X33Q3
X-W3W3-3-3
-W-3,W,3,P
WQ2QV-P-3,
,2-V3,--3-
P--W--W--W
--,W,-V-P,
,P,P,PP,PP
,Q-W,W|
X^X^|^X^X
W4W4WXXWXW
4WW3XW-WW3
QWQX3Q3W.W
-W-W3Q3-3P
-2-V-3,3P-
,Q,W,Q-Q3Q
3Q3,Q3Q-Q,
-P,Q2Q-
V-Q,W-,3P-
--2-Q,Q,
-,P-,
Q,Q,-,-,P-
,-,,P-
P,,PP,P,P,
,Q,,Q,PPWW
X^X^^X^^
X^X^X^X^X^
WXXWXXWXWX
X4WX4WXX-W
W3XW3QWX3
4Q3W3QW3Q3
Q2-3-V-W-P
QQ,-W,W-P3
QWQ3Q,QW-P
-3P3Q
3-V-Q3P-Q-
VQ3Q,-3P--
V-W-PQ,,-
Q,QP-P-
P,P,P
P,PP-PQ-P-
3WXWXWXXWW
X-WWQXW4WW
Q3Q3W-W.3-
3Q33Q3Q,3-
3,Q23Q,Q3P
-W,-W-W-V-
,-3,Q-,Q3Q
,W,-P-3Q,Q
2Q2Q,Q2Q3P
-3P-,Q,-,Q
,,P,-,,Q,Q
-,Q3P-,
,Q,,P,
PP,,P,P,P-
,P-QWXW
^|^X^
XX^XX^X^
3XW4WXW-WX
W3W-WQW4WX
WX3Q3W-W3-
Q3-,3,Q2Q3
-W,Q2Q,W,W
QWQ3Q-W-Q-
Q3Q-W-P3Q-
Q3Q-,W-W,Q
--V-,-,-PQ
-QV-QW,-
,P,,Q,-P-Q
3QP-,Q
P,-P,P
PP,P,P-PP-
WX3WW3WX
4WQWWQ3QW3
QX3QW3Q-W-
W3-W-W--W-
-W,Q-Q3Q3Q
3Q33Q3-,W-
P3P-V-P3,W
,-P-W,P-Q3
-Q,--,-,-
-P,,3
,3P,,3,Q,,
-P,P,,
PP-P,--QW{
WXX4XWX3XX
3X3XQ3Q3QW
RWX3WXWX-W
QWXW-XWQQ3
Q-WQ-3W3-W
,3W,WQWQ3Q
W-Q--3Q,-3
Q3Q,W-Q-Q3
Q3P-P-Q2Q3
-W-2Q3P3P3
,Q,,2-P,,P
,,P,-P,P,-
P,P,,P,P,P
P--,Q-QQ
WXXWXXW
WXW4WXWXW3
4W3W-WQ3WW
-W3XWQ3W-3
3Q-33,W--,
W-3Q,Q-W-,
WQ3Q3Q3Q--
WP--P3-P-2
Q,Q,Q-P-P-
-2-,Q2
-,P-,
-P,,Q,
QQ-W3W
^|^^X^
W4XWRWX-WW
RWXQW3WW-W
3R3QWQW3Q-
W-2Q3,-W-W
,WQ3QW-W3Q
W--3Q,3-P3
Q,WPQ3VQ-V
-P-Q2Q3Q,Q
3P-V-,-V-
,Q,P,
,,P-P
-P3Q-W3WW4
X^X^X^WX
WXXWXXWXXW
XXWXWXW4WX
W3W3WWX3W3
W4W3W3W3Q-
W3WQ3W3Q3-
W-3-Q3-W-3
Q3-W-W-W-Q
3Q-3Q2Q-W,
Q3Q,W-3,Q-
-,Q,Q,W-Q,
3-V-3-,3
Q,W,P-
-P,Q,P-P
,,P-P-W-WQ
X^X^^X^XX^
WXX3WX3WW4
WX3WWX
XWQ3Q3WWQW
W3R3X-W-W3
Q3-W-2-3QW
Q3QW-W3Q-3
Q3Q-V-Q3P-
W-P-WQ,W-P
-V-Q,3-P--
,Q,W,-2Q2-
,,-,P,-
-P-P--
^^X^^X^X]4
^W^WXX]XX^
X^W^XXW
WXXWXXWX3X
3X3W4W3W4W
3W3WX3W3W4
W3W3W3W3Q3
3-W3W3W3-3
Q33Q3-W-W-
33QW3Q3Q-3
Q3-3,W-W,Q
3Q2-W-2-,-
3Q-P-3P-3,
3Q2-3-V-,-
P-,,3,W,-,
-P-WXWXWWX
X^^X^W^XW^
W^X^W
WX^XW
W4XWX3X4XW
3X3W3X3XW3
3W3W3W4W3W
3W33Q3W3W3
Q3W-W-W-W-
W--3Q3Q33-
W--W--W--W
,3,2-2-,W,
-,-W-Q-2-3
P-3P-Q,--Q
,-3Q3,V,-,
Q,Q-QW3WW3
W^X^WXX^X^
W4WXXWXX3X
WW4W3X3W3W
W4WXW4W4W3
W3W3Q3W3X3
R3W3W-W3W3
Q3W-W3Q3Q3
Q3Q3-W-,W3
Q2-3-W-Q3Q
3,--W-Q,W3
Q-P-Q,--2-
-3P-,,-,
-P-,,
Q,-P-P-P,,
Q,Q,Q-W,X
W^X^XW
^W^XX^WXW^
^W4WXWW4W4
XW3W4WW4W
W3W3W3W3W3
W3W3W3W3W-
W3-W-W-W3-
Q3-3Q3QW3Q
3-3--,Q-QW
3-3,3P-Q2-
3-3-,-,3-,
-W,Q-
-P-,-
,,3P,-
2-P,P,P3,Q
3W-X^
X^^X^X^XX^
3X]X^WX]XX
^XWX^X]X3X
]X3XX4X3XX
WXW4XXWX4W
3XWX3X3W4W
4W3Q3W-W3X
3W3X33W3W3
W-WW3Q3W3W
-3WQ3W-WW-
3-2--V-W--
3-,Q-2Q-3Q
3Q,W,-,3,3
,3Q2-V-,3,
,,-P,,3
-P-P--
Q--QQ3QWX
X^XX^X^WX]
XX^X^XX^WX
^]XWXW^XXW
XXWXWXW4X3
XWXW4XWWX3
W33WX3-W3W
33Q33QW3Q4
Q3QW-WWQ3Q
W-3W-W-3WW
-33Q3--3Q3
Q-W-Q3-V-,
-W-Q-3W-,3
-W,W-
2-,3,3,Q,
,-P,2-P,,-
-,-,W,Q
3Q3WXW^
X^XX^XX]XX
]X]X^
^XXWXX4WXW
4XWXWXXW4W
XWX4WX3XWX
3XWW4W4W33
X3W.W3W3X3
3Q3WW33WQW
3W3W-3W-W-
3Q3W-3-3-3
-3Q33Q3-2Q
3Q,-W-P3Q-
2-,-2-W,3P
-V-2-,-
-P3P,V,-
P-P-Q3-WQW
X^X^^X^WX^
XX^XX^XX]X
XW^XX^XW^W
X4WX3X3W4W
XWXW4WXWXW
X3XX3W4W3W
3X3W-W3W3X
-W3WWQ3Q3Q
W3QW3Q-3Q3
3W-W3W-3Q3
W-W3Q-2Q2-
V-3-,-W-P3
Q,2Q2-V-W-
P3,2-2-
-,-,3,2-
-P-V-Q2QW
^^X^^X
^X^X^XW^XW
^XW^XX]XXW
4XXW^XXWXW
XWXX4XXWX3
X3X3W3W3XW
3W4W3X3X3R
3W3W4W.W3W
3WX-W3-W3W
3W3W-W3Q-W
-WQ3Q3Q33Q
3Q3-W-V--3
Q3P3-W-,3,
3,-2,Q-P-P
-3,-,W,-P-
P-P-,Q-P-P
-W3WW^
X^X^X^X^X^
XX]XX^XX^
WX9XWXW4W4
WX3XWXW4X3
X3W4X343W3
XW3X3W3Q33
W4Q3W3W3-W
-W-WW-W-33
-W-WW-W-3W
-33-W-3W,3
-2Q2-2-W-W
-3-2Q-,W,P
,,3P3-,-
,Q-V-,-V-Q
-P-P3-
-WQXX
X^^X^X^X^
X^XW^XX]XX
]XX^XXWX4^
WXW4WXW4WX
W4WW3W4WWR
3W3X3R3WX
3QW3WWQW3W
-WWQ3W-3Q3
Q3-W-3P3-3
-3Q3-W-W-2
Q3,3,-3-W-
3-P3,Q-3,
Q,Q,Q,Q,Q2
Q3P-QW3WW^
^X^^|^X^X^
X^X^XW^X^X
X^WX^XXWXW
4WXXW4XWX4
WXXWX3XWX4
W4W4W34W4W
3X3W.W3-W3
Q3W-W3QW3W
Q3W3WQWW-W
3Q3Q3Q33Q3
-Q3-V-W-W3
Q3-3Q3--3Q
-Q3,W3Q,3-
Q3QQ-W,3P-
3Q2Q-P-,Q,
--W-WWX
^|^^X^X^
^|^X^^|^
X^X^X^X^
]X^X^X]XX^
XWX4WXXWXX
W4XWXWXXWX
WXWXX3X3W3
WX3WXW3X3W
4WWQ3WQ3Q3
Q3W3Q3W3W-
WQ3Q33Q3-W
-3Q3-W-W-3
Q3W-W3-Q3Q
3W--W--2-Q
-P--P-,Q,P
--Q-QWQWXX
^^|^X^X^^
^X^^X^X^X
^X]XX^
^W^X^WXWXX
WXXWXWXW4X
3XW4X3XXWX
W-XWX3W4W4
W3W3W3Q3QW
-WQ3WWQW-W
-3Q3-3-Q3Q
-3Q-3Q3-W-
W-W-Q3Q-3-
W3--2--W--
-Q3,3QP-,
Q-,Q3P
^|^X^X^X^X
^X^|^X^X^W
4W4WXW
WXWX3XW4W3
X3WXW3WX3X
WWX3WW3WW4
WW-W3W-W-W
3Q3Q3-W3P3
Q2Q3P3-V-3
Q3Q33Q3Q3Q
W--V--W-3Q
3Q,-3Q
P-P--P-Q
X^X^^
X^X^X^X^X^
X^XXWXW^XW
W4W4WX3XWX
X4W3XWW4W4
WX3W3W-WWQ
3Q3QW-WW-X
-WW-W--W-3
Q3--3-3-3-
Q3-Q3-W-3Q
3Q3-3-3Q3-
W-3Q3,--V-
-Q,Q-V-
QWW|X
X^X^^|^X^
X^X^X^WX^
WX^XXWXW^X
W4WXWXWX3X
XW4W4W4WW3
XWWXW3W3XW
W3WW4Q3W3W
-W-3W-W3Q3
-W-W-W-W3Q
33Q3Q3Q3Q3
Q3Q2Q3-W-3
P3--W,--,Q
Q,Q,WX]
^]X^X^X
^|^XX^XX^X
^X^XXW
W4XX3XWX4X
WX3XWXWW4W
X3WXW3WX3X
W4WW3XQW3Q
3XW-WW3R3-
WX3QW-W-W-
W3Q3Q3-3Q3
WQ3-WQ3-WQ
3,3-3,W-2Q
3-Q3,-W
P,,Q,Q-W{^
|^X^X^X^X^
X^X^X^W
WXXW^WXXWX
XW4WXWX3XW
4WX3WW3WXW
4WX3XW4WX3
-W4W-W3WW3
Q3Q3X-W3Q3
Q3-3Q3Q3-W
-3Q3Q,W-3Q
3Q3Q3Q3Q3-
W3QW-,Q,,-
X^X^X^|^X^
XX^X^XX^
]XX^XWXW4W
WX3X3X3X3X
3WW4W4WX3W
WXWW4QW-WW
QWW3W-W-3Q
W3Q3W-3Q3Q
3W-3Q3Q33Q
3,33-3Q3-W
-W-2--3Q3-
Q-,--W3X
X^XWX^
WXW^XXWX4W
WX3XW4WXWX
WXWX3W4X
3XWX3WW4WW
3WX33W.WXW
XWXW.Q3WW-
W3Q3Q3-W-3
Q3Q33Q-P-W
-W-3-3-W-3
P3Q-W-W-Q3
Q3-W-WQWW
X^XX^^X^X^
X^X^XX^XW
^XXW^X^
]XXWX4XXWX
X3WX4WX3WX
W3WW4WWX3W
4W4WX-W4W3
WQW3Q3W-W3
W-3Q3-W-WW
-W-W-Q2Q-W
Q3Q3Q3P3,W
-3-W-Q-W--
3Q--Q-WXX
X^X^X^XW^
XX^XW^XX^X
XWXW^WXW
]X3X3XW4XW
4WXW4WXX3W
W3XWXWXWW3
WXW3W3W3W3
-WQW-
3QW-3Q3Q3-
W-W3Q3-W3Q
3-2Q3-3-Q3
-3Q3-33-3W
Q-3W3WW
X^^X^|
^X^XX^XX
^XX]XWX^W^
X]X^X]XXWX
]XWXWXWXX3
XWX3XW4WW4
W3X3W4W4W4
WX3XWXWWX-
WWX3WW3-WQ
3XQW3W-W3W
W-W3Q3W-W3
Q3-W-W3Q3Q
--Q3Q3W.3
X^^X^X^WX
^WX^XX^XX^
XW^3X]XX3X
WX4WXX4XXW
4XWXW4WXWX
W4XWXX3XXW
X3WXW3X3W3
X3WW4WQWX-
3Q3Q3R3Q3-
W-3W-W3Q3,
W,3Q3Q3Q3Q
3Q3-W3Q3WQ
^|^X^|^W
XX^XX^XW^W
X^X]^XW^W4
WX^X]XX3XW
WX3XXW4W4W
XWX4WXWX3X
WX3W4W3WX3
XW3QW3W3QW
.W-W3W3Q3R
W-W3W-W3Q3
W-33Q3Q3Q3
QW-3Q-W-W.
WXWW^X
X^X^X]X^W^
X^X^X^W^XW
X^3XW^WX3X
X]XWXXW^3X
XW4WXWXWW4
WXWXW4WX3W
3X3W33X3W3
XW3XQXWW3W
3X3RW.W3W3
3Q3Q33Q3W-
W3QW-WQ3Q3
-W-W3R3-
^X]XW^
^X^WXX^X]X
3XXWXX3XWW
4W4W4W4WW4
WX4WXWX33W
4W3W4W3WQW
3W3XWW3Q3W
W3W4Q37
Q3Q33Q3W-3
Q33-3Q3Q3-
Q3W3Q3W3WX
X^^X]X^XX^
X^X^X^XXW^
W^XW4XW
3XW4WXXWXW
4XW4WXWXW3
3W3WX3W3X3
W3W4W3W-W3
Q3W4W-3W-W
3W3Q3WQ3W-
3Q3WQ3W3Q3
Q3W.W.W3W
X^X^]^
{^X^W^XX^X
^X^XWXW^W^
4W^WXWX^XX
3XXWWX3X3X
WX33W4W3W4
W3W3W3W-3W
4Q3WW3-W3W
3W3W-3-3-W
W-33W-Q3-3
Q3Q3W3XWXW
X^^X^^X]XX
^X^^W^XXW^
W^XXWXX3X^
4XW4WX^3XX
3XW4WW^3W3
X3WWXW4W3X
W3X3W3W3X3
W4W4W3W4W3
-WW3W3Q33Q
3QWQW-3WWQ
-3W.W-W3X3
3XWX^X
]X^X^WX^X^
WXXWXWX^XW
XX]X3X4WX3
X3W4W4W3X3
X33X3W3W3W
3W4W3W3W3-
3W3W-W3WW3
W3WQ-W3W3Q
3Q3X3WXWWX
X^X^|
X]X]X^^X]X
X]X^X^XX^W
4X^W4W4^WX
X]XWX3XW3W
4W4^3WX3WW
4W3W3XX3W4
X3XW4W3W4W
3Q3W3W3W3Q
4Q3Q3Q3-3W
-W-4WW4WXW
X^X^X^W^^X
]XX^WX^X^X
^WXW^XXWXX
WX4]XX3WXW
WX^WX
4WX34W3XWX
WW3WXW3W3W
3X3W3W3Q3Q
3W3X3
3QWW-Q-W-W
WX3WXWXX^X
^^W^^
W^^]^W^W^X
]XX^X^XWX^
X]XX]X9X]X
9W43WXW4W4
WW3WW3X3X3
W4W4W3W4W4
W3W4W4W3W3
X3W3X-W4Q3
3Q43W4W3X3
^X^X^^
W^^]X]X]^W
^^X]X^W^XW
^WX9XW4W^3
XWWX3W33WX
3XWXWXW4W4
]W3X]X33W3
W4W3W3X3W3
W3W3W3W4W3
W-W3RW3WRW
-W4W4
W^^]^^X]^W
9X]W^X]4]4
]XW^W^W^W4
W:W^WX]4W3
W9W3X9W3W4
W3X3XW3W4W
3X3W3W3W3X
3XW4W3W.W4
W-W34
X3XWW
]^^W^W^]W^
]W^3^3]X]X
W^W^3X3X3]
W]XW4W:WW3
]4W4W3W3X3
]4W9W9W4W3
W4WWXW3W4W
3W33W3X3W3
Q3X3WQ43X3
4WXX^
^^]^^]^^
^^]^^X]
]^^W^]X]^W
^3^W^3]4]X
]X]X9XW:W^
WX9X3]3W9W
4W9W3W4W3W
:W3XW3XW3X
3W3W4W3W4W
34W34W3343
W34W^3^^
]^]^W^]W^]
X]^W9X]W9X
]X]X]3^4]X
]4WX4]3W9W
3]4W9W3X3X
3]3X3W4W3W
4WWXWW4W4W
W4WW3X34W3
^]]^^]^^]X
]^X]W^3^W:
W^W:W^]W^3
^X]X]XX9W4
]WW9X3W3]3
W4W3]3W9X9
W4]3W:W3W3
X3X3X3XX^W
W^]^^9X9]4
]X^W4]^]3^
W^W^X3X^3W
3]W4]3]3X]
3^3W9W4W4W
3X3W3X3W3X
3XW34W3X3X
3XWXXW^WX^
]d]^]^
^]^]^]^]^]
^W]W]^W
3]^W]4]X9W
^3^W:W]X9W
4]WXW9W3W3
W4W4W3]3W9
W:W3]4W]3W
3X3X343WX3
^9W:W^]^
^]^]^]]^]^
]^]4]]4]^3
]4]]X]4^W^
W]W4]]X]W^
3]X3X9W4W9
W3]4W4W3W3
X3W34W4W3X
]X]^]^]^
]^]d]]^]^]
^]^]^]^]^]
W]]4]]3^]]
^3]X]W]3]4
]W]3]W9W^W
3]3W9W3W4]
3W9W3]4]3W
:WW9W4]3]4
]3]3^]]
]d]^]
]^^]]^]^
]^]^]^]^^]
^]]:]3^WW:
W9W^W9]3]3
]3]W3^W3^3
X9W]3X3W3^
3WW4W3W4W3
W3X]^]^]^]
^]]^]^]^]^
W]]X]3^]W]
^W9^]9X9]]
:W]9W]^3]^
W3]WW9W^3
^]W]3^9W:]
^]]^c
^]]^]^]^^
4]^]^]^]]9
^]^]^W]3]3
]3]^3W^W^3
WX3^^]^]]^
]^]W^]3
^^]^]^]
^]^]^]]^]^
]]^]^]]^]^
W]]X]4]W]3
]W9X9W^]]^
3]]3]3
W]^]^
^]]^]]^]]
^]]^]]^]^]
^]]^]^9
^]^]]^]^]^
]^3]^3]
]^^]^]^d
^^]^^]^^]
^^]]^]^]
^^]]^]^
^]^]^]^]]^
d^]^]]^
^]d]^]^]^]
c^]^]]^]^]
^]^]^]^
]]^]^
]^]]^9]]
]d]d^d
]9W]3]
]W]W9W]3]W
9]3]9^W9
W]W9W
p314-3
A mixture of fused ore and coke (known as sinter) and limestone is poured into the top on the furnace, while a blast of hot dry air is blown through the mixture from below. The coke burns at a high temperature and reacts with the oxygen in the air to produce carbon monoxide. This reduces the ore to liquid iron, which flows down to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone reacts with impurities in the ore - principally silicon form sand, clay and stones - and prevents them from contaminating the iron. Instead the silica and limestone form a slag, which is lighter than molten iron and floats on the surface.
From time to time liquid iron (known as 'hot metal') is tapped off from a hole at the bottom, gushing out as a white hot stream. The slag is drained off at regular intervals from another hole higher up. The iron-making process is continuous and may carry on without a break for 10 years or more, until the furnace's heat-resistant lining begins to deteriorate and has to be replaced.
Iron and Steel (3 of 5)
From iron to steel
The iron tapped from a blast furnace is a raw material, not a finished product. To be useful, it must be converted either into cast iron or into steel. Cast iron is produced by remelting pig iron (iron that has been cast into molds and allowed to cool) and carefully adjusting the proportions of carbon, silicon and other alloying elements. Strong and resistant to wear, cast iron can be machined and is easily cast into quite complex shapes. The molds into which it is cast are made of sand contained in molding boxes. The shape to be cast is impressed into the sand, and the molten iron poured into it. When solid, the casting is removed and the sand re-used to make a fresh mold.
The great bulk of the iron produced in a blast furnace is converted into steel, by greatly reducing the carbon content. A way of removing carbon economically from pig iron was discovered in 1857 by the English engineer Henry Bessemer (1813-98). In the Bessemer process, air blown through the molten iron combined with some of the carbon, carrying it away as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. It also oxidized some of the iron, which then combined with the silicon and manganese to form a slag. After just 15 minutes, several hundred tons of iron had been converted into steel. The entire converter rotated on an axle like a cement mixer to pour out the molten steel.
A much slower and more controllable process was invented in the 1860s by a number of engineers - the open-hearth process. In this process gas from low-grade coal was used to heat pig iron in a shallow furnace. The chemical changes were the same as in the Bessemer converter, but the process had the advantage that scrap steel could be added to the mixture. The process took up to 12 hours to produce steel, allowing very careful control of the final composition.
Today both the Bessemer and the open-hearth processes have been superseded in most countries by a process that combines the merits of both. In the L-D process (short for Linz-Donawitz), a jet of almost pure oxygen is blown through a lance onto the surface of molten iron. The process is quick and can absorb up to 20% scrap, while producing steel of very high quality. The addition of lime to the oxygen enables iron of higher phosphorus content to be converted, and in this form the process is known as the basic oxygen furnace.
For the more expensive steels, including alloy and stainless steels, electric-arc furnaces are used. Heat is provided by three carbon electrodes, which are lowered into a mixture of scrap and alloying additions. Silicon, manganese and phosphorus are removed as slag, and carbon is removed by adding some iron ore, which reacts just as in the blast furnace. The fact that an electric-arc furnace can melt a charge consisting entirely of scrap is a big advantage in developed countries where recycled steel makes up a large proportion of total production.
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Iron and Steel (page 3)
ftsTitle
)p1-p-
HllHl
l$HHlH$
l$HH$ll
l$H$H$Hl
H$H$H$H$H$
H$$HHl
1--1-
-1--1--1--
--1--
x(qyxx
pqxpTy1x
p(ypUy
(%0(-
xqq-
xzyyz
xyyUyz
zyyUyyq
0xyyzyy
yyzyy
yUyyx
yUyyU
yxxzUyy
zVxyyUy
zxUyxxzl
pTzxxUx
qxUyzyy
yzxyyxLq
xzyMp
p((p-
((-((
L(($px
-B*:p2
(p(p)
((L((
((pp)((
((xqp
lxyTyy
l09xxz
xplqx
1pypx
p314-4
ftsTitleOverride
Iron and Steel (page 4)
ftsTitle
Sheet steel from a rolling mill. Molten steel is often formed into a slab, which may then be rolled out into flat or coiled sheets. It may also be cut into smaller pieces and rolled out as wire, hollow tubes, bars or rails. Alternatively, more complex shapes, such as engine blocks, may be cast or forged directly from each slab.
Iron and Steel (4 of 5)
Types of steel
Steel is sold in the form of cast slabs, or rolled into plates, strips, rods (for nails, screws and wire) or beams (for buildings, bridges and other constructional uses). To make it suitable for a particular use, the characteristics of a steel can be altered by a number of processes, including heat treatment and alloying.
The most important factor in any steel is the carbon content. High-carbon steels are harder and stronger, but they are also more brittle and cannot be welded. For adequate weldability, carbon contents below 0.2% are needed. The precise characteristics of any steel also depend on heat treatment, which determines the microstructure of the steel. Steel can be hardened by heating it to red heat - around 850 degC (1560 degF) - and then quenching it in water, but such a steel is also brittle. The hardness can largely be retained and the brittleness reduced by a second heating to a lower temperature - to around 250 degC (480 degF). The steel is then allowed to cool in air. Such steel is said to be tempered.
Alloying steel with other elements in addition to carbon is also important. A steel containing 3% nickel, for example, is immensely tough, and is used for gears and shafts that have to take a lot of strain. Steels containing up to 13% manganese have very hard edges, and are used for items such as rock-breaking machinery. The metal molybdenum is added to alloy steels to reduce brittleness. Stainless steels, containing around 14% chromium and sometimes nickel as well, do not rust because of the formation of an impermeable oxide layer on their surface. Such steels are now widely used for cutlery, kitchen sinks and the cladding of buildings.
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
P$$,L$,$
,L$,(H
PHtHP
H,H,H,
$,H$$PqP
lHtHP
,$P$P$HtH,
,LQHPHHup$
PLtHPL
L$,$tq
ttLtlu
Pt(H$,LH,L
,HP$,H,L,,
tHtpP
uH$PM
HHQLH,
HPpIt
tQptH$P
HH$,pH-H,$
$u($t$t
tMtLlPlPlt
puLlHPp
tt(H,H,p
pltplPp
pPHt$
(H,t$P
ttptltL
pHtMlPp
HtHuHPl
tPlPp
tHtqt
PL$PplPp
tPqPqtQt
$tHPtp
tlPpl
tLtlPplt
pltllt
PHt$t
QtLtPl
tPpt,
lt$P$
HH$tLlt
tMtup
tlPlP
PlQpPtL
LltLt
Lt$upQH,
lu$,$uPqlP
tlPltl
Ptltt
Lltlt
ttltplP
PpluLl
tH$$l
plPplt
PlPtl
tHPHt
HtlHt
tlLlPp
LtPp,$
$PtLP
tltltll
tlt,p
Pltlt
lPlPtlttLt
t$PPHPpu
QpltplPp
PltLlPp
tp$$P$
ltHPpP
pltLt
Pp$P(,,$Pt
$$Qpt
L$,Ll
$,$Pp$PpP
$-tp,t(
tLt$,
$,(,$$,
PlPlP
$,,pP
tlPptHP
tlPHHt
HL$HPp
$HtLPl
HtHP$
$PHQ$$
$PHQP$
$pul$
$HPu$
l$LtL
H$ttH
HHPlt
P$$,H
l,qt,p
HtLlt
$,$u,$Q$$
lP$,$,$
,HH$P(,H
lPltl
$$,pt)$
P$,(Q
tlPlP
ltl,$$
,L$u$,H
tLt,HPt
P$$,$,(
PM$$,$$,$
(ttMtH
$up,qP
Q$HtHH,)
P$P($,$
P)$,HQ
(PLtP
QpH,HPp
u$$,$,HQtM
H,H$Q$$,
$,L$u$P
HuLHPLHMP
LPt$up,PLP
P(tuL,t
HPtqtL
tLuHP
t$P,MtHPp$
QL$uHPL$tM
PPq,$$PMHP
$u$HQPMPP$
-$,$$,$,$$
,H,$u
u$tpPLtM
tqH,LH,(u
,tHuL
$PM$P
lltH,
,$,$tPp$HP
M$H-$$,$,$
,$$u(P$$Q
tHt(tP
,qHup,
$PtHtPp,HQ
tq,$QP$t
pPltLH
IP($$,
H,HQt(
$,Q$$P
PuHt$tqP
$,pQt(t
PHt(up,,pH
,(tLt
(tHPqPHu
$u($,$$
Q$$P$P
$Q$,$
,(Q$,
$uLHPq$$t(
t$,($,u$t
$u$up,H,HQ
ltqPLH,
,LPH-$,M$-
$$,$Q($$
,t(H,qt,pQ
H,H,qH,HQp
P$yH,qP
PP$P$uHPq,
ltltH
,$$,L,
HuHHPH,$$
,$P$Q$$
$$,LHQtq$(
,H,$,$-$
p,$,q
H,HtMH,HtL
u$PMP,pHQ$
$u(t,q,$,p
PM$HQH,
$$upP
(H,$P$,p$,
P$$t(
$MlP)P,$
,$PH$
,$P)$,L,MH
tP$Ptlu$HP
$PL$t(
tMtHP
PMHP($$,q
)$,H$
,$,u$
,qtH$
$u$$P(
qPl,pPu$uL
PluLHP
H,$$,P$tHu
Ltl$t
t(HtMtHHtp
P$$Q$u
,$PL,,
L,$$,t
,L,,LP
t,L$upP
HPHHuLuL
MtqPlPlPp
P)$,$$
tH$,t$,$
,p$u$u
$QHQ$H
$,HPH,H,q
,$yt)t
$P)$P$$Q
,q,$$Pu
$$Q$PM,
$,L$,)$HPq
P$Qt(tL,$P
qPq$HHu,H
u$HtPq
uLtpQ
u(t,($
H,(HPL$,pP
P$t,(
,HtH,pP$,p
LlQHQpH$
$,MH,($
$u$$,pQ$u$
,p,$$
QHPH,$u(uH
$,$,$tq
P(H,q$HQH,
$t$PH,upP
($$-H,L$
QH$uH,t$Q$
u($$,(HPPL
,MH$P$,HQ
$,qPtL
,H,QHQHPqu
$$u$$,qPq,
PMt$$,L
,HP$,HQ$P$
PHQP$
qHu$,$u
$$tLuH
t$,H,$
$$H,HHuL
$,HLH,H
$-p-$PHHPq
u$,HHP-
$Pq$tL$
$tluLl
ltLu$,,qP$
HQ$PM$
tPHtP
uH$,t
tHH,H,HLm
PM,$P$,
PQH$$Q$,
HQ$uLuL$t
PqtLl
PltlQH$HP
LPH,$
H,p$ttp
H$,LHu$
$u$uHQL$
q$Q$$,
tlQHt
Pm$,plttl
L$,(P,H$,
P$,Htp$P
($$,($$,u(
H$,$,H
H,HP(
p$ltL
HHQpPHQpm
,u(P$
Q($,q
$Q$HtMHQH,
t(u$uL
,$uPpt
LultlPqPHH
PH$$,pQq$$
uLIHH
uHtLt
LtPLQHu
$-L$Q
$P$Q$$,HPM
t(P,$Qp
,,$$P$,L
u$$u(H$
lPllPp
$,plt
$,lPpHQ
P$-L,
$P$H,$$q$P
-$Q$$u
,$tMP$,L$u
Hu,$,H,$P
$Qplt
u$tMtt
Hu($t
(H,$-$,q
,L$,H,L
Q,$Q$($tq$
P$,L,
tlLlP
$$,HH
PQ$,L
,$PM$,q$P
tq$,H
tlPptL
$$P$Pp
Q$,(HQ$,
$$t($P$
Q$PH$P$u
p$,p,
q$tpHQHuH
H,$$tHuLtl
PlPlPqlt
lPpQlP
u($,(
,$,q$Q
PL$$u$
PHPPp
Pq$tM
qltLtlPq
lultMl
t)$,M$$P
QLP$,
$Qt($
t$P$P
$QH$$P)$$
$,pPqP
$,MtH,L
,)P$u(P$u$
,t$Q$
u$PHQtltLt
PlPpllt
,$,H-
,$,$PP$PH-
$$Q$-
u$,H,$
$,pH,Mt$,
,$tu$,q
tMtPq
P$$,,$
$,$$-L
$,p$u
t$tq,,
$tLH$tHt
lultpQltlt
lQltlltq
PL,$$
QH,$u$MP
$u$,$$,$tL
uL$up$QHP
PpltMtL
$Q($$
P$PL-H$$,
$$,$$,q$u$
,$tQ$,(H,H
,$,u$tH,
,$,$$
,H-$$
y$-$P(-P
$$QL$,H,L
P,q$$
tpQHup$tpP
plPpl
$uL$,$$
P$$,$Q$
H$,$P(uLP,
HPpPpPu
$$,PMtL
lPltltlP
$,$,$
uH$,$-$
P-$$,
,$,$P$,P
tHt,$u
QHPtq$tp
,$,M$,
,L$Ut
u(Q(u
,$t)H,LtI
HPqtL
tplHPpPHQ
tHHPpHt$Hu
$,$,$u
,L$-$Q$
,,$P$$,$Q$
P$,(tul
,$$P$$
,$$,$Q
$,$,L$,$
Q$,HPp$P$P
uHtMH
PqltHu
lu$$Q$
$-HPL$
$,$$,
,M$,$,
$,$QP(P
$-$$-
P$t,(,,
q$P$uHu
PptL$u
tItLlPIt
MP($$Q
$,$Pq
,M,$P$,MP,
tlulP
$,$Q$$
$$-$-$,$
$$,$$
$-L,$u$,$,
$,$,q$$P$$
tQpHQHPL$
u$$,q
$,-L$
P($-$,
($$-H$Q$$,
mPpQHp
pPtlu,$
$$-$,M
$P($-
$,$$Q$-L
$$,$,$$,L
,$$P$,p,qP
PLHPq
PqltH
,qQP($
,$$,H,Q
,$,$-P
$PM$,L
y$,$,P
$,LQ$t($
p$t$,p$PHt
$,$,$$
,(P,$,
$$,$$P
qH,Lt
$QHt$tP
$,$,$
$,$PL
,$P$,$,$$
up$tM,HPtM
$-$,$,M
(Q$$t$M
u($$y$
,q,$(HQL$$
HPpP$PLP
$$,L$,
Q$u,L
,$PP$
$,$,H
,$$,$
$$-$$
P(PH$-
,$$-H,q
y$Qp$$PL
$tLtt
L$Ppl
-($$,
$-$,$
$,$$P
$-$Q$
$,$,L,$
$$,p$PL
,(P$P$Q$P
PLH-HQHQ
HtLt$
$,$$P
L$u(H,
$,($,$
$,($$
P$-$-LQ
P(H,HQ$P
$t($,Hu$tL
ltlu$
$,$Q$$,
$,H,$$-$
,($,$P(
$HQp$
,$PP$u$
,$$,$
,M,$,$
$,$,HQ$PLH
tplu$
$$,$u$,L$,
QPM$QL
,$,$Q
$,$$,$,$,$
M$P(t($,Hu
HPqPP
Lltlt
$,-$,
$$,$,
$-$$,
($,$,$
,)$)$,
$u(tH,
u$PpuHP
Q$,$$
P$-$$,L
tQ$PL,$
$,)$$-
,)$$QL,$u
$u($,
,$Q$,$,L
,$,($u
u,$QptL
$P$$,$,H,
tltLltltLl
P$$-$,$
,$,$Q$$
,$,p$,$
$,$,$P$
Qltltup
$,$,$t$$
,-$$-
y$-H,
QtH$l
-$-$,$
P$$,$$
-p$$-$
,$)$-PU$$-
,(P,y$PLut
$,L$$,$
$,$,$$
,$$,$QH,$
-$$,$,P
,$t)P$u$$u
$,$,Q(P$,
P$,$,L,
q$P)$P
(t,P(
HltlP
$$PHt
tPqHQLP
u$Qp$-$
($Q$,
$,$,$
P$,$,$
$$,L$PLP
$$QH,$,$-
$$,P$$
$t,$$up
P$uH$$
-($$-
$,$,$,M
-$Q$,q$
,L,($
$PH-$,$$
-$$,$,
QHH,(P,L,
Q$PL,$P
u$$HP$$,$P
$,qH$,$,$
H,$Q$,p,p
H-L$u$
,$-$,$,$,
$$,$$,$
H$$,P(,L
u$,H,
,,$,L$(,
$,$-$,
uL$P($P,L
L$,$$QL,
,M$-$,tP
$,$,$
$$,LH,Q
$,LQLQ
)$$,$,
($,L,
PHPH$
$-L$,
$,$PH-$$
$$,Hu
$,(,,
(,$-(Q
Q$,L-
QL$$,M$Q
$,(P$
$QL,,q
H$l$$t
$,$,)$$,-$
$$,($
P$,$,L
$$,$-$,$,$
QH$,$
-$,$P
$P(P($$-
P$,(P$uL$
$u($,
$-$,$
-$,($
$Q$$,$,M$
,($-($,$u
$u($,$$,(P
$P)$$
L,$$Q$
P$,P-L
$$,$$
$$,L,
$,($$,$%,
$$QL,
PlHlPt
$u($$,L
Q,$-L
-$$,LQ$tp
P$,$,$
($$,L
P)$,$
$,$$,q,
$,H$,$$
-P$,)P
$,L$Q$,
-$$,$
$,L,q
$-H-$,
L-,L$P$,q,
$-L$,),$
$P$$,$,
-$-L$
,($$,$,M
$$-$$,$$
,-$$,$,q$-
$P$P(
Plu$u
,H,($,,
P($$,(
$$,(,Q
,$P$t
ltqlH
$$,$$
P($$,
,p,Q(,($Q
$,$$u$
$$,(P$$P$
P(H,$-$
$uP($,QLHy
ttLmt
,HQ$-,$
L-$PQ
$u$$Q
LH,($,$
tq$$tLl
-(,q$$
$(t$P
lltlH
ltllPuL
P$HPq
(Q,$,
,$$,$,$
,$,$$,
$-$,L
P)H,$$
,$$,QL,
LQ$,L
LltlPH
,$-P(t$P
,$$,$-($,$
P$tM$
$,,M,$Pq
(tu$,
$,L$,P$l
-$-$,M
(P$$-$P
$-($P
$Q(P(Pt
t$,q$
,($,q
$$P$-$
P$-$,$$P
$,$$,$Q$u
,M$P$$
,(,M$$P$P$
,,$P($P
($,$,L
,$,(,$$,
-$,)$
$QL-$
ltHPH,q-$
$,$$u$,$,$
$,H,M$
Q$$,L,$
$,P($P
P$PP$U$
,M$$,$,
$,(%P
$,$Q$$-(H
$,$,($,$
$,L$,
-ltH,(H$$
P$P$$,,($
$,$,M$$-
,H,$P
Q$,q,
P,$,$,(
tHpQ$
$,(Q,($,($
$,H,(
$,PHPLH
$,L$$-
$,$H-
,$-L$
,$-L,$
$,$$,$P$$P
$,$-$-$u$-
$uLtH
$Q$,$Q$
,L,,$$,L
$,$,$
$,$-$,$,H
,(,)$
uPH,(l
$$lPll
pH$HP
$Hu$P$,
$$P,L,
P)$,L$
t$$H$t
LttqH
uLP,)
-$$t($P($$
,H-,L$
$,$,$
P)$,$$-H$,
$,$,$,$,
$,$,$,L
-$,$,$P
L$$,$Q$,$$
$$,$$,
,H,L,$,Q
$P$,$$,$$P
$u$$,$
$,$P)H,$-$
P$,$,$QH$$
u$$Q$-$
L,u$$-
$H$Q$-L
$u$P$-
-$P($$
PM$,$,
L$,$,$P,(
$,($,L,$$,
$$,($-P,L$
,$$,-$
Hll$$HP
PHPplPp
$,$P$,$PMP
$,H-$,$
$Q$,$$P%t$
$L$$,
P$,$PM$,H
P$,$$,$$,
H$,L-$P$
P($$,
P(,,L
$u,,L,$
$Q,$,qP
LtPptH$
Qp$tp$
L$,$,
P($,M$
(Q$-L
uLH,$$-H-
$-$,$
$,L$,H,M$P
$$,$,L
,$,H,$$
-$$,$$,$
,$y$,
Q(,P$
,$P$$,L$Q
$Q$,(u,$
,$,$PMP$,p
tq$P$$-($
LlPlt$$t
$P$Q($,$-L
P$,,$
$P$P$,$$
$$,$,$
$P($,$
$,M$,$,
H,$$QL$$,
,q,$,
$$u($$P
$-L$P$,$-
(H,H,L$$,$
$PH,$-$Q
$-$P),$$,
PQ$,$$
,L,,$
P$$tPpQ
Pt$,pPu
$-L,$$H-(
,,M$-
$P)$,$$,$,
,$-$$u($$,
(H,$,$
$,$,$,,
($P$,L$
P$-(,$
$Q$,$,Q(
PltPlt$H
ltLtM
P$,$$
-$,L$,$P
,HP$,$-$
$,M,$,
L$-L,
P$P,$
tMHQ,HQ
$,q$$
q,$$P
-L$P$
,L$$,$
$$,($
$-$,(H,
)$,$u
lPltllPl
,$Hu$($Hu$
$,$$,($$,$
$P$,$
lHPlHPtL
Pltll
t,H,$
$u,$$
Q,(,$
$u$,Q
LH$$H
,$P($P(
$-H,q
,$-$$,$$,
,$,H,H,
,$,$t
-L,$P
$,M$,$QL
tHQL$
$,$,$-$
$L$$t
Ml,p,$
Q,$,$
-$(,$
$$,$-$$
$,$$-P
($,q,Lt
llPltl
$,$,$$,$$
$$,$$,
PplPp
HH,LlLl
pPltu$
P$$,$
$,-L,$
tPHPlt
up$,P$
,$,$,$
$tptPL
pPtpPplP
PpPlP
pPq,$,t
LlQplPl
tH,$,
$,$$-p
PMt,$
lPltp$t
,$,(,p,HP
PHu(HtL
tM$P($
$,L,L,$Pp
ltLHu
$P,$uLt
tH,pQH(-
L,(PP
PuMP$
pltLt
PHQH,
$,P$,
(tP(,
,L$$tM
,$Q($(,M$
H,$t(
$-($(P
tluult$P
$$,$,
P,$$,L$t
P(P($Pl
,$,L,
$P$$,
L,,M$,$1
pltL,tM$
QHPq$Q$-,$
H$P$$P$
u($P)$PL
$$uPHP
$,,($
$,$,P
LtltH
P($-L
$$,($
QplQp-$
,$,(P($P
(P$$,
HPt$P
PHPp$
tHP$,LP$
$$,P$,
$,P(,p
LHQ$u
HuPpu
$,$Q$
$,L$,P$
$tPLP$
$-(P($
lLHPq
t$,QP
P$$Pp
P$$,M
$$,$$H
,LH,$
L,($tL
$,L,tpPpPp
Q(Q$,P
$,$,$,
QL$,L
PHQL$t
(P$$,$
$PL$$Q
p314-5
ftsTitleOverride
Iron and Steel (page 5)
ftsTitle
Iron and Steel (5 of 5)
SCRAP
The availability of recyclable scrap steel is an important factor in determining the most suitable kind of steel-making process. In a typical developed economy, there is so much scrap available that as much as half of any newly manufactured steel object may consist of recycled scrap: new cars have old cars driving around inside them. In developing economies, where there is less old steel around, a much lower proportion of scrap is used.
Not all scrap, however, comes from products that have reached the end of their life. A lot of scrap is produced in the steelworks itself, from material that is not up to the required standard, while off cuts from industry are returned to steel mills for reprocessing.
Type Carbon Typical
of steel content uses
(%)
Mild steel 0.08 Car bodies, tin cans
0.2 Buildings, bridges, ships
Medium- 0.25-0.45 Gun barrels,
carbon railway wheels
High- 0.45-1.5 Tools, scissors, cutlery
carbon
Cast iron 2.5-4.5 Machine tools,
engine blocks,
ironmongeryy
cutlery
Cast iron 2.5-4.5 Machine tools,
engine blocks,
ironmongery
Type Carbon Typical
of steel content uses
(%)
Mild steel 0.08 Car bodies, tin
cans
0.2 Buildings,
bridges, ships
Medium- 0.25-0.45 Gun barrels,
carbon railway wheels
High- 0.45-1.5 Tools, scissors,
carbon cutlery
Cast iron 2.5-4.5 Machine tools,
engine blocks,
ironmongery
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1U11-
]1-1-
11,]-
-0-9-
UQ0U,
,U0Q0
1-11-11
y1TUUTyQQ0
11-1-11
T1xy0P1
U,1T1P-
y0-y,
1-11-11-
T1U0-
U,1P(0
1Q0P,
-0UTU,UUP
1--Ux-
1yUPU,U,
]]11U-
]yTxQ0
U,1-x,U
yTy,1x-
T1T-xy
U1U11-
1-1TU
xUPUT-TU
T-1xU
1U11U
UxUyx-x1yT
Q1P1U
-UytUU,y
,y1xUQT
yxUTPy
yxUxUxT1
1UPUyUxUy
-1xyPyx-
yTyUPU
]U1-]
11yUxyT
yTyUT1
U]y0yUyy
uUxyTy,10Q
11-1T
Tyy-xU
1y,y0
-1]1-
xUT1y-
Q(1Q0
,U-UTU
T10y0
U0QTyQ
0Q,-,-
9U11:
UPUy-
11-1]
MUy0-yT
1PTT,M0y
,11U:
U1T-0-
11-011
1yUyT
UyTUY
0U0--
11P1x--:
y10Q0
--1P1,y1
P1U11
1 :1-
-0Q1-
0-10U-1
0Q,P-0
--0U:
QTyTU0-
-1-1^
UyTU0
0Q1P1
11-01y
,x--T1U,yU
xyTy-
-0U]U
11x11
UyxUP-x-x
yUxUxU-
1y0UU]
--1P1Q
1T--0
-0-0-0-T
-)T1Q
-,U1-,U-
1-0Q0Q10
U0yUyy
--T-T
1P10Q
T1UU0U
y1UY11
--11y
U1U11Y
]U1--
-1-1TU,U
-0U-1
0U19-
--0yTU
T1UTU
-,1PUQ01
11-1--11U
-L-x]
U01y0y0
U0yT1
-0--9
--T--0
-01-1
0U1,U
Uxyy1
]1T-U-
y0yUx
U-T,M
T1-0U
T11P(U
11UUYU1P
1P1T-
-,yTy
QT,pUxT
Q10U0
QUx-T
-1ty,M,
1]UTU
Q01,1-
-Q1U0
Uy1,U1 c:?
^11y]y
11-11
--11-
-U:?:
y-1U-
U]Q1T]
yTU-TU
QTU,1
]UUy1
-1xy-
xu0--
)P1QyU
P]-0-yU
U,y1x
U1T1UT
y11--0
yx-T1-0y
yy,yy
0yPU1^:1-0
1-0Q1P
-11T1y
xUyTyTQ1
2^:]1:
11--UTyT
U,UTy]-
-T1yUTUyyU
,U1y1U1
yUy1-
b:1-Y:1U
)Q)T1U
MTUxUT
-1:1-
^:^::^
yyUux-
1-U0UTu
U10u01
1V9^11P11
PUxy11
1UT11
x1Uy-y-1QU
L10y0
Q0-0y
11xQx
TU01Q
]U0U1U
P-T1-U
-1Y]1--1
UUx1-11
Uy0y1
M,Q(U,
11: 9
1Y1yT
-xU11-
yUTy11-
9]-0-y
0yyUT
11Uy:
1-1xUyTU-
yUTy1
y910-0
UPyyx
-PUU-
-11^1
1TyTuUxy
1xyUT91
,Uy1Q
1-:U1
,U9U9
y0-11y
-0uTyU
1x]x]
UQ1U1Y
-9]a]
1PUT-
11U10
:c?^-
Q1y1-
P1yyUy
1y1P1T
Y1:?^b
:1-11
y--xUx
]11T1y
(U11]U
UT-,-01
U01TUT-
-0U1U
M0--,T1x
1T11T
P)UQ)u
xUT11U,
^> ^x
U11--
U1yUxU
TUx1P
U1y1LU1
1--1-
U11U1,U
--1x1-
U1U]U
-1-,UTy,
-1--110
UPQL,
1-0-]U1
1y01]
9]=bBb>B
a=f>fb
1U1U9
9]9a9
1]9]=]
]=e99
]9]=a
-Ua]1bB
1-1U1
9-9=]
9]9x]
]1U]b
,U,Q0
1-Y0y
19b]1]
U91U1-
1U19U
1U11]1
9119U1]1-
U1U1Y9U
-119U11
11]1U9
U11U91]1
-101]11U11
U1]1U
P1P1--
x11-110
-U1--
1UU-1
1y-U1
1U1-]
p316-1
ftsTitleOverride
Rubber and Plastics (page 1)
ftsTitle
Rubber-tapping. Although millions of tons of natural rubber are produced annually, the substance from which it is made - latex - is still tapped from rubber trees in the traditional way. A diagonal cut is made into the bark of the tree a meter or so from the ground. A spout is then driven into the lower end of the cut, and a cup is attached to catch the latex as it flows out.
Rubber and Plastics (1 of 3)
The natural product of a tropical tree and the man-made creations of a chemical factory could hardly have more different origins. But rubber and plastics play similar and equally important roles in modern life.
Rubber was known to the Mayas and Aztecs in Pre-Columbian America. They heated the latex - a whitish milky fluid - that flowed from the bark of the rubber tree until it coagulated. From it they made balls with which they played games. The Spanish, who conquered most of South America, used rubber to waterproof soldiers' cloaks, but it was a Frenchman, Charles de la Condamine (1701-74), who first brought it back to Europe.
Vulcanization of rubber
Beyond its curiosity value, raw rubber had relatively few uses. It was given its name by the chemist Joseph Priestley (chiefly known as the discoverer of oxygen), who observed in 1770 how useful it was for rubbing out pencil marks. In 1823 the Scottish chemist Charles Macintosh (1766-1843) made his name immortal (though universally misspelled) by inventing the 'mackintosh' - a waterproof raincoat made from a fabric produced by sandwiching a layer of sheet rubber between two pieces of cloth.
It was a Philadelphia hardware merchant, Charles Goodyear (1800-60), who transformed the future of rubber. Looking for a way of preventing it going sticky when hot and hard when cold, he mixed it with sulfur and heated it. The result was a far more stable and useful product - tougher and more consistent in its properties, yet retaining all the resilience of untreated rubber. The name vulcanization was given to this process. Vulcanized rubber could be used for a whole new range of applications - conveyor belts, hoses, valves, insulation of electrical cables, and, on the horizon - the biggest use of all - pneumatic tires for road vehicles. By the end of the 19th century Michelin in France, Dunlop in England and Goodrich in the USA were all producing tires for the motorcar.
Rubber production
Although other plants have sometimes been used, most of the world's rubber originates in cultivated plantations of Hevea brasiliensis, a tree native to Brazil. Seeds from this tree were brought to England in 1876 and exported to parts of the British Empire where the climate was suitably tropical and humid. Today more than 4 million tons of rubber is produced annually, 90% of it from Southeast Asia, principally from Malaysia.
Latex is still tapped from rubber trees in the traditional manner. At the factory the latex is first caused to coagulate (usually by the addition of chemicals) and then masticated - kneaded and worked between steel rollers rotating in opposite directions - to break it down and make it flexible. Next, the rubber is mixed with various compounding agents to improve its performance. Carbon black may be added to reinforce the rubber, while antioxidants are incorporated to prolong its life. The color of the rubber may be altered by adding various pigments. The sulfur for vulcanizing is also added at this stage. The rubber is then shaped on a variety of machines into its final form, and only then is it vulcanized, usually by heating it in a metal mold. For tires, the final shaping and vulcanization are carried out at the same time, by applying heat and pressure in metal molds.
Rubber is used in a vast array of different products, from delicate surgical devices at one extreme to huge conveyor belts at the other. Artificial substitutes for rubber have been made, but for all but a few specialist purposes they are not as good as natural rubber.
* CHEMISTRY
* TEXTILES
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
--01-1-
111]1
--01-0-91
U91-0-
01-01U
-1-11U9
U91]1\1
Q0U11
11Y1--
-U010-
0-1-1--
1]191
]1U01]18-11
9-1U19
1-101
11]1U1
U110--0
911\1
]1\11
-1U11-
-111-
U19Z]
1U111]1-
11]19
--111]11-
11-11
191T9
T1UY1U1-
11]1]
-19-11
-1--11-
U11911
:11-9
11T1U1]
U1-1-
-U-1-
--1U9
--01U
1]111
U1U19
,1-1--
919U]
1U--11
0--01
0111-
11-11
T1-11T1
1111-0
-1U]1U9
-1U11U
U91]1]
Y1:Y11]
111U11U
-0-111-01
-0-1--
1U01U1U1-
-01-0U0U
-1-11---
-1Y1U9
-0-11
19U01]
-1-011U1-0
T-19-1
--11911
-9-1U1
-101U1
]1YU0
U1-111
1-10--
91]1]
U10U-0
U1119Y1111-
]1]1]
9U11-,
U11T19
111-,
U918U
-111-
01111
U0U1U
U01U1
0-1T11
-1]191
91U91
-1U1Y1
1U10U-111-U
11Y1U1
]91U9
9U9191
U91U9
:1-1^:
51101
011Y]-
T1U0---
9]1999
19U99
1U11U11-1--1-1T
U1-11
59U99U9
1]19^b
--0111Y
11U1U1
U91]9
5]1]19
1]919]
-11-0--
91]19
59U9U9
]19U9U9
:--:9
1-1--
9U9U1
19-]1
1U99U91]91
-1-1-1U01-0U1-0
9919U9
U9191
9]19]191]9
U1U1U0
59]1]1]
]1]1]1919
U91\91]19]1]9
b^9U19
11T111U
11Y01
19199
991]9U91
1]191]19
9U1U1
0-01U
]919U9
]19-]
]19191
1]191\
U9U9]1]
91\91]91]9U9U9
911U9
U111-1U9U
-0-0U1U-
999U99U91]191]1
9-]1]
U9U919
1-91-
U1T1-
19]91]9
99]19]1
U9U91
U9U9U91]1919U9
U1191
]19]19]19
19]1]19
]9U19U
191]1919U9U91]1\181
1]9U9U9U9
:1U-1
59]19
]1919
]191]19
U91]1
991]1]1
U91]1]19
91]99
1]1]1
9U9U919
]1]191]1
1]1]9U9U
1]1919
1]1]1]19U
110111
U0--,
591]1
1911]
19U919U9U9199
991]1
T91]1]191]1]1]9
:U19
99999
1]191]1]119
]1]19U99U9]
]1919
]19919
9-1]1
1111U111-
9]991]19
191911]1
1]199
9U9U9U91]
9U919U91]1
U99U919T991U9U9U9Z
1]19]1
919U919U9U9]9
19U9]91]99]
]1]9]1919
59U9]1
1U9191
11]19U919
U91]19
U9U99]1]1]1]19191]99U99U91]1]19T9U9U91]9U9
-0Q1Q0
5]191]
19911
1]19U9]1]19U9U19
9U99]119]
1]1]19191
U919U
U9U91]
1]19U91
59]199
1]1]19U91U9
1]19]1
9]1U91
U919U919U19
-1P-,
]1]191
191]9U
U9U911
U919U
199U91
9U9U1]191]19]19U]19
U919U9U9]1]99]1]19
1]15U99
U091]1
1]19U991]1
191]91]199]9
,U01T1P1P10U0
1T1]11
1]9U99
99U9919
191]1]1
]19U9U
51]1]19U9
U919U
119U9U19]9191]19U9]19U9]191]1]5U91]
^119-
9191U9U
]191919
9U191
1U9U91
1]191]9U91
U9]199
)y]U1
U,1U010U1
U1919U1
]19-9
919U91
U11]191
U91]19U9
1]191]19U]19]19]U99
91^^:
-1U--
-,1Q-
1]1]1]91
9U9199
1]19U9199
U9UU9
1]11U
T1]1]1]1]1
991]1]1919U9U99
99191]1
]919U
119191919U91]1
U91]19
U911]11U9
]1]1]9U9]91
9U9]19
9U11U10-
0-0U01
19191U9
1T91]1\
8U11]1
U91]199]19]19^9^:
U1Y11
U1-011
-L1,U1
-1011
U11U1
9U9]1
U81]191]
19U99U9
1]1]191]9]1]19
-11-1U
111111
1Y1U10
U1]1U
9191]1919-]1
1U91]1
U811]191]9]191]99U9U9
1Y91U11U
QT1Q-
9]191
1]1]1U9
51]-919-
\1911
U9U91]9
9U]999]
11U11119
U-0U1
101U1U9U1U101U11
91]91
5]1991]9
91919
9U19U
U1]191
U91]19]1]19919
1U1-0
--111
--19111U
1]19191]19151
919]19]199]1
9]1]9
-0-01-
19U9191
1U1]1U1]191
]19191\
]1]19]19]
19]19
1U111U
0U11U1]
0-0--0111
1]19199U9U
191]1
91\1919]1]9199U9]U99
19U011T
U0--0
]1]19U9-91
1191]1191UU1
]19U99U91]9U9]9191]^
5U111-11-
111119-
1919U
91]199
U91]191
19U191
T911U9
]11]19U919
91]9U9 b b
11-1-
1U91U9
111U9U1U11
T1-1U101
]19U99
9]1]1
919U1919U1
U1]U1]191]1]
1U9U]19]9U9]91]9U9
]--9U
-11-911
9]119
U9]1]1
U9U9U9
1]1]11
U919U91]9U9]b
U1T-1-
1--1U9
U1011
111-0-
91]19
U9191]19
9U9191
U1U1]191U
U9U9U91]191]9191]
0-,-,-0
9U91]1]9U91]1]9
9U5U19
]11-0
11U1]1
-11T110U
19191
1]11]1919
51]191]1]1]
0-1U111:1-1
1T1T-
11]11
1]11]1]
]18119
U91]1
191]919U9
-111U
]1]19
U81]1
U9191]1]1]11]195^ b
1U1U1
-,111--
9]1]1]
U1]1]191
]1]191]19]1U9
-10-1-11
11]1191U91]1]1]199]19
U^U1-
919]1]19
91191
1\1]1
1]1]191]1]1]9
--1U9
U--10
-111911
]-911]19U9199U9
1U1-1U010-
]1]1]1999
01U--
1]1U0-
-9]91
0191]11]1]199]1
U1-1]
-011T
:]11-
5919U
1]199
]1]1]19199
99999
1]1]1
Y1U111--
5]1]19U9
11111U
1-011
111T1U
-]01]19U99
1U1]111
T1-011U-
01]1-0
U91]9
11U11
1111-
0-111U
191919
1U11T
]19U19U9U9U9
]1U1]1
9111-,
T1-U11]1
--110-0-
1U9191
01-11-
0U-1-
1U9U9
11-U1U
1\19U919
0191]U9U9
U1U1U1U---
119U99
11111119
U9999U9
9U11-
U-0-11
1919U99
U1U-91
U1U1]19U9
1U0--
9]19U9
91919
U91]1
91]9]
11]11] b
91-0-111
]1]191]91
]1]91
1]191
1]1--
T-111
9U9191191]1]
1]1919
1]-19
1]19-
1]19Tb
-101-
-011-19U
-19-9-1
U9U919
111]1-
9U9U1
1]1]1
191]191
9-]1]1]191
--0-19
919U9U
]19U9
1]1]1]1
T11919
]1919191]19
111U1
1]19U1
0918U11
U9119Uf^
11-1-01U11
19U9U91
91-9U91
91]9U9
U91]1
191918U1
1111,
1]11]9
19U9]1U
T1918-]
19118111\
U91]19
(-0-
19b^]
]1919-]
1U9-9
0919U
]19U9U1
U9]191
U91]191]1]1
119U19191]1:
-01-1-
fU11]
9U9U19
1]9U9]1
9]1]181
U191]
1]19119U1
]1]1]
91919
U9U1]19-
19191]1]1191]-
1U0-10U10--T1--
U9U91
19191]
]1]1919U
19U1]
9U9U9
U9U9111U9
:Y9^1^1
-110--
991]1]1
U1919
119191
19^11]b
-1-Q0-
:]::^9
--0U1-0
]18-918
]1]1]1]
^91U19
:^:=^
11819U
919-9
U919U]19
1]191
U19U9
:^f^b^
-1-0U
-]1]191
91]-91
9U9U9U
1]1]19
:]11]-
119U1U11-
-19U1-,
U1YU1U
U9U919U91
191191
U91]1
U0-1U1
91]19
U9U9U9
1U-1Y-1-1
-1U1T
11]11919191]
U0U0-,
U9U9191]
191]1
9-1--
0U0U01-T
1]19U119
U0U10
U919U
919U9
19-9]
911U--
^ b :
U0-0Q
91]19U
11111U
-10-0U
U19U11U11
U1110
U9191919U919U
1]-9919
-1-1511
1U1119
b^:f^
9U1U9
1-0U01U
91]-]
111U]
-U,111-01
]19U191
19U9U1T9191
1-01-1P
]U1Y1y
-0-11U0-
1]19-9
1]1]191
U919U9
191U1y
011U011
-1T-0
]U1-111U1T
1U1]1\1]
1U918U9U1U9U1
1-19
T1U1T11
1-111
Q01y111T
9:^11-
U9U9U19]
1]11]1U
]1]1]18
U1U11
-T]T1P
1]1]1]191
Y1-,1T1
1]191
U9U19U91]1
9U919
U1U11
U91]1]1
1]19U19U919U
1]19U9
11919191
::^b^-
U1U]U1U
119U91]
919U91]1
5U9]1]19]19
91]191]
110U11Y11
1]19]
]19U9U91
1]191]
1]9U9U
]1919U
Q01T1y1
f^ ::U11-
T1-0U
U1-1-
U91]91]1]19]19
9]19U99U9]1]191
1]11U
]U9T1
:Y:Y:
-110U111Y1U0-
1991]1
9U9U91]1
19]191]
]19U91
U]yU1-]
U1]111
^9:^:
U,1U0U
\1]9919]1
9191]919
U9]191]
Uy101-T]
Q,U,1
U9119
919]1]9U99U9]91]9
9U9]19]19]
T9 bU
]y9U1-
1y0U-,U10y1Q,
:>^::U
199U99U9
91]9U919]19
59]1]1]19
TUT141T
b^b^:
^29]:
919U9
19919
U9U91]1
1911919
Q1T--1P-
b^f^
::^:1U1
]11-1
b b:
U01,U11T
19]5]1]91]9
]1]9U91
]1919U
U9191]1
110-0
9y]U1-01-
-1U]1T11
-1P0U1T1-
919U9
59]19]191
91]919
1U1U1
9U1UUU
1U1U,U
T-0U-TUT1,L
U0-T-
:]:U9:b
1P10U1011
11U1-
999U9
]1]1]
0U1P1U0y0-1P10U1-0-U
0--0-
:^:^9
0U1P1U1
91]9U99
91919]19
9U9]9U91
U919U
U111-1U1P1
y11-1Q
-91U1
919]1]19
1199^
^1U1T
]y1U11-01P1T
,U1-0-
::^9^:]
9U91]9
]191]
T1y]U]U,1U11U
U-1T-
>^b^1
9]19]91
19U91]1
919]9
11U]y1y11UY1T
1P1T-
1T1y0y0-U1
::U111
1-TQ0M
99U9U
T1T111,
UU0Q1
Q0y010y1P
L11T-U
9]1]1
1]919
]1]191]19b
11-11U11U0UY
]y0y1-
1U0U1,U]U1
:: ::
-,1--
]191]
1]191]
01T1U4
11-1-
10U0U1,U
y010P10Q0
01:^b^:U
Y1U1U1
]1]191
1Y1U111y
U-P1T-U
-Q1y1x1T-UUUTU-0Q
0UUU01
UYU11
19-9U
U1]19U9
11U,U1
01UTUUU,1
U-T1U
U01U01U
T111--
U9U91U
]U011U]
T1U01,U0U,
-0U1-
1TUU1U1
1y111P
T]y1T-U0-0U,U0-
U9U9U919U9U9
U1U1U01
UU1T1Q
-1y1U
U01U1U01U0,
-81]-
119U19U91
19]191
y]U011L
1-,1U1
P)1T-
01Q0Q
-\1-T1Q
-1-,U
9U91]1]199
1U]T]
1U1-0U
0U1P11U01U
1U010Q
1T1U,
U91U919U91U
1U]UUY1
1Q0y1-,
11U01]1
]y9y10
]1]1]11
11y]U]U0y
UU110Q0
1y1T1U,
1]191U1]1
]91]99
-0y1T1T-
1U11T1TUT-
]U11U]Q0
-U0-0
-10y1y1
]181]1
1U8U919
9U9U9]91]1
U0U]U1y10U]1T1y1T]U0U
T1T1U0U1TU0U
U9]19
Q0y1T-,y1U
1]19191
1U10U1U1
]U0-y
-11T11P
T,1]::
P1T1Q
9U9U91]1
Y1---U]T-
-U,1y1
9]19-
1U-TU
1U0U]U]1
(UUT1
1-1-9
91]19
1U1T1yUUTU,
01TU]0U
P10U1
]91]19
59]9]9
P1T1-
-0Q011
-9U11]
1]1]991]
y0U5y
-T10Q
-1-11
-15]1
]1]91]95
11T10
1U10-Q01UU
1Q011
(U1--0U0Q
1-1991U
11]1]19
]199U99
]U0U1-0-0y]
]1]1]9
1Y1P)
Q1T10
1T-]P1T-T1
10U1Q
11U9191
]9191
(--0-
1T-1T10
1Q---,
P10U1T
1U19U
]9U919]9]
-0---
1,U01U0-
Q-T-T-
91]1U91
-1T1TU1U0-
]19199]1
]U1U0U-
1Uy0U0-1
U1011P-
U9191
U91]1
]-,U1
1U]11,-10-U
]19U9]11
101T1Q10Q1-
T10-1
-P1Q0
Q11P-
Q0Q,1T110U1
0Q1T10
191]1
U0Q10U
Q(-011-
1T1T1T
U111U
101U-U01U-
1U]0U1
-0U0U1y]Y1YU
P1U0P
11,--0UY
,U0U1
Q,U0U-
1-1111
]19U9
]1991]191U
1-1U10
-0U1UT
Q8y1011U
y1TU1
M0U0UU]U
101T11
0Q1Y1
0-y--,
)]y]T
U1UY1-0-0U1
19]U9]1919
1--0y1-10U
U0U]U1
Q,U1,
U101111
]1]9U9U
11T-U
L1T11
01U0-U9T
101P0
]1]91
1]19]919
Q1T1U,y1U
T1TUUU
P1T10-
9U919
59U9U9]9
]U0U1T1U
0U,1P1
P11T1]]
U]10-,
y111,
-T-1-
-0U-01-,
0U1\1
9U919
599]999
99U9U
U0U-T1U0U
M-U,-
-U0U1U
9]9]1
110-0
11111
-18y]
10U1T-
5]199
91]919999
911U-
-1-0Q0
U01U]U1-
Q0UUU,U,
10]1P
91]91]199
99]1U
)1T-1-0Q
-11U1U1U
-01U0U1
1T1U01T
199]19
T1-0U1
-1U11U
]T1T-
)U,1P
M0U01
Q001,
1-1U1
P1U1U1-
9U95]9
T-101P9y
1UU,U
(Q(U0U0Q
(1T1-
Q1T10
119U91]
199U9
99999y1-
11T1U1U01T10
U0U\U1Q1
L,0Q0U
U9919
-Q1U11-11
111U]
01]Y1
1T1U01T1,
10Q,1
-0U10U1
1]1]1]919
5999]11
1U0U10-10-10
1T-0U10U
P)T11T-1y1T1101Q
9U9U9
199199
1y-1U
111P1
T19x1T1T-
U1P--
U919U9U9]1]9U9
91]910U
T-U1-1
0-10-
P1U1-
10U1Q
0U1U,
110U01
Q11U0U11
-0U0y
-,U1U
U011U1
1-0U0U-
10U10
19U9-9919U9
59111TUU1U11101
U-010Q0
-1-10
)--1T11T1
-U---(U0
Q1P1U
P1T1T
M0Q0U0
-111]1
19191]19]99U9
U0U1,
-T1-1
)T11U
U9U91
U9]19]9U9
59U99U10-0U
TU0U01
Q0y1T
11919
9U919
99]19]1
Q1T111-
0-T1-
U01y0-,U,
,U001UTU0
]1]1]19]19
51-01-
1U01y10U
U1P1U01T1Q
U1U1-1
9U9U1U0U
U0-,U01T1
Q,)T1U01P
T-0U-1-L
U9U19U911T1
(1-01P1,P1T
0U10U0Q
-0U101U0P)T
,-0Q1T
1]19U9U1-
U10Q0
),1U0U1
1U1P)P
)0U0U--
Q1P11
-P,--
0111U1
1--1--,
-T,U1P
U0U11191
)T1P-
U11U1--TU1
]1191
T1Q1,
Q0--1U0
T11U1U
(-,U--
U1P1P1
T1U-0U
111011
L,01T,
,1-U1
0U-,U-01
-Y1Y1U1-1
U1011T1U
]11U--
Q(U1T-
U1P1Q]U
Q01Q01-0
9U111U
1-1-1T
Q(Q,U
,1U011U
,U11--
U01T11T-
0U11T
-0--10-
-UQ0-01U0
]11U10U1,
(Q)P)U1P1
U919U
-11-0
1UY10-1T1T
-01U1U
9yT1T
,U0-,,-
M-,L-L-
9U91]
11011
L-T1,-
U9U919]
9191]1
U1T10
U10U01U-
1-1T11U-
U01U0P
9]9199
U01-0
P-(U,Q
191]1
1]1]9U
-T1Y)T1-
0U111
)0Q0-
191]199]19
59U911
1]1]1]
59]1]1
U1111
01UU8U1
1T11U11
]9]19
U19U1
-1T1U-0y
P1110U1T
1T1T10y91
1T10-
191]19
9U919U9
1-0y1
11U0U11
U9U91
9U99U
]1U1T
1U01U09y0y-
95U91
1UU]011U]
T1UUT1TU0U01
U0Q10U0U
]191]19
5U99]1
9U91U
11811
1--P9U
0U10U0110U11T1T
]19]1
U9U99]1
y0U1011T11Y01T1]
0U0U0Q
1U]19U
1]1]9
9U9]91]1
1U10U0U11U
U0U0U1y
191]1
1UY1T
1T1U-
,1U0-U01y
]9U9]
U01U01T11
P111U01U
-11U1
]191U
0U1U11y]
1U11T1
-0101P
-U011U1-
T1-1-
Q0U]U1U
Q-09U11
110U0U1T1U1111
]U]1T
0U0-1-
-U]U0U1U0
T1Q01P1T-1T1T1]Y
-01U9U1U1-11--
1-]11T-Q
T11101U0U11T10111U9]01
111U11U9
1U111--1-0110
0U11U
-11-11
--1T1y10U1
y01U]U-
1U11]
U1U11
]1111]1-1Y
-0U--
Q0U110U1
9111T
]11U1
---0U-
M1T1Q
P1T1U0
1U111]
110]1T--1T-
-11011110
-0-1-
,1U,1
]111U
1-01U-0UY
111U0-1
]11U1U10U
U]U0-
1U111111
UU,-P
P1yT11T
0-1U1
1]1U-1-
-0-11-
T1U11T
T1Y]U1T1
19U11-0-0
-110Q
U11U1119U
-1U91-
-11119
1U191-11
11-111
11U11]
Y11U11U9U11
}11U1U1
11U1-0
1U011U1
119U11
111,-111U111T
-1]111
-1Y11]
1U101UT
9y1U1U11
]1U51
-1]11-
1-0U10y
]1U011
]1\1Q(
0U0U]U
111111-
U1U1U1
P111T19
U1111U1
1U11U1U1
91111--
1U1-,U
U119U1
1U0U11
111U1
9UU110
-1191
01T1-,11
0-1-1-1101-
]U011
-T1U9
U0U1T1
9U1-10
U11U0
-1-0-
11--1111-
1111]
-1U1-
]]Z1U
U01U1
11TU1
U1111U1
1U9Z1
U1T1Y-0-911U1U
--T91111T1
U010U1
1U1U11U
1T11UU1T-
1U11-
U1U1U
-0-111--01
1-1U1
1011U11
-1,110
11U1U1-
U11-0-111
U11U1U
-011-0U-
11U11U1
19U11
11-0-Q
9U1T11--
1-011
U1U11U11
-0U]11T
]U0y]U1]
11Y1U111-1U
11101
1]1]1
-010U
-U0U,
UU11U1U0
-11119
U11TU0101
-1U0U1--0
111Y1U
1U1-0-
101U1U
1U101U01-
---11
-11111
1U110
]y-1y
]Z1U1
T11--
1U11Y
01Y11
]1T11
9U19U
11110
--111U
110--
T111U111-
1-11U1U1-0
-0U1-
110-11U
111U91
1U1U11-
Q0-U9U-
-1U1-1
0U1-0
,U0U,
-10-U
-1-1U]
]1U19
1-11]11U1UY1U1U
011U11
01U10U9U0
11UY1U1
0-0U0
10U9U1U1U19
1-0-0
]UY1-
(U1T1-1
9U111U
1U11-
]U1U1U1U1T1
p316-2
ftsTitleOverride
Rubber and Plastics (page 2)
ftsTitle
Low-density polythene (or polyethylene) being formed into film by extrusion - ejection under pressure through a suitably shaped nozzle. This form of polythene is widely used for the manufacture of plastic bags and other kinds of packaging. High-density polythene, produced at lower pressures using special catalysts, is a more rigid product, and can be injection- or blow- molded into items such as plastic kitchenware, milk crates and large drums.
Rubber and Plastics (2 of 3)
The first plastics
Chemically, rubber is a polymer - a compound containing large molecules that are formed by the bonding of many smaller, simpler units, repeated over and over again. The same bonding principle - polymerization - underlies the creation of a huge range of plastics by the chemical industry.
The first plastic was developed as a result of a competition in the USA. In the 1860s $10 000 was offered to anybody who could replace ivory - supplies of which were declining - with something equally good as a material for making billiard balls. The prize was won by John Wesley Hyatt with a material called celluloid. Celluloid was made by dissolving cellulose, a carbohydrate obtained from plants, in a solution of camphor dissolved in ethanol. This new material rapidly found uses in the manufacture of products such as knife handles, detachable collars and cuffs, spectacle frames and photographic film. Without celluloid, the film industry could never have got off the ground at the end of the 19th century.
Celluloid can be repeatedly softened and reshaped by heat, and is known as a thermoplastic. In 1907 Leo Baekeland (1863-1944), a Belgian chemist working in the USA, invented a different kind of plastic, by causing phenol and formaldehyde to react together. Baekeland called it Bakelite, and it was the first of the thermosets - plastics that can be cast and molded while hot but cannot be softened by heat and reshaped once they have set. Bakelite was a good insulator, and was resistant to water, acids, and moderate heat. With these properties it was soon being used in the manufacture of switches, household items such as knife handles, and electrical components for cars.
Plastics proliferate
Chemists soon began looking for other small molecules that could be strung together to make polymers. In the 1930s British chemists discovered that the gas ethylene would polymerize under heat and pressure to form a thermoplastic they called polythene. Polypropylene followed in the 1950s. Both are used to make bottles, pipes and plastic bags. A small change in the starting material - replacing a hydrogen atom in ethylene with a chlorine atom - produced PVC (polyvinyl chloride), a hard, fireproof plastic suitable for drains and gutters. By adding certain chemicals, a soft form of PVC can be produced, suitable as a substitute for rubber in items such as waterproof clothing. A closely related plastic is Teflon or PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene). It has a very low coefficient of friction, making it ideal for bearings, rollers, and non-stick frying pans.
Polystyrene, developed during the 1930s in Germany, is a clear glass-like material, used in food containers, domestic appliances and toys. Expanded polystyrene - a white rigid foam - is widely used in packaging and insulation. Polyurethanes, also developed in Germany, found uses as adhesives, coatings, and - in the form of rigid foams - as insulation materials. All these plastics are produced from chemicals derived from crude oil, which contains exactly the same elements - carbon and hydrogen - as many plastics.
Large blocks of expanded polystyrene being used instead of normal fill in the construction of a trunk road. The adaptability of plastics has meant that they have been able to replace traditional materials in many areas: as well as offering economies in cost and time, plastic substitutes are often more suitable for a given purpose.
Rubber and Plastics (3 of 3)
Man-made fibers
In the 1930s the first of the man-made fibers was created - nylon. Its inventor was a chemist called Wallace Carothers (1896-1937), who worked for the Du Pont company in the USA. He found that under the right conditions two chemicals - hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid - would form a polymer that could be pumped out through holes and then stretched to form long glossy threads that could be woven like silk. Its first use was to make parachutes for the US armed forces in World War II. In the postwar years it completely replaced silk in the manufacture of stockings.
Many other synthetic fibers joined nylon, including Orlon, Acrilan, and Terylene. Today most garments are made of a blend of natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, and man-made fibers that make fabrics easier to look after.
Plastic waste
The great strength of plastic - its indestructibility - is also something of a drawback. Beaches all over the world, even on the remotest islands, are littered with plastic bottles that nothing can destroy. Nor is it very easy to recycle plastics, as different types of plastic are often used in the same items and call for different treatments.
Plastics can be made biodegradable by incorporating into their structure a material such as starch, which is attacked by bacteria and causes the plastic to fall apart. Other materials can be incorporated that gradually decay in sunlight - although bottles made of such materials have to be stored in the dark, to ensure they do not disintegrate before they have been used.
* CHEMISTRY
* TEXTILES
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
$,y,u
UP0uT
L,Q(,
y,y]x
1PP1x
1t0yTx1t
Uy,U,
(t(U,U,QT,
LtPtM
0P,UTP,
t,tLtP
QT,uTU,
x1xx-x
,M,U$1
x,UP(1
T-T,0P$
y,,pt,
y,,MTxPU
UL,xT
UyU,,UTP
)UU1y
1UTy1
-1-11
yUy1TU
y1UUy
Uy1y1
y1P-1
Q1-11
UUTU1y
Yyy1-UQ
yTUUT
UU1TQ
0U1Ty
]M10y-P
(Q(u(
y1U0U-
UU-(P($
,x,TU
t,tPu
y]y-U-0
,P)0u,
,t(Py
UU1Q1,
P,,p,
yy1UUy
,t(tp
yZy]y
UQ(,$$
$,L,Q1
]yUyZ
}]yTy
yYQ]1
Q-M,M
-1011(
\1-11
1y]yUU1
Uy1Uyy
U-1-1
-T--0-,-
M11-11M-1
U0Q1-1
yy]yyU
0-UQ1-U
1-0-1
11y0U1U11y
1Q1T11T11-
11UU1
-y-1x
-U11y
1y1U1yU
U1U1yU
--x1U
0-011-0y
P1U-U
1-0-1-T11)
QUu-y
10-10-0Q1
11)1--Q
U1-1-
]U1Q1-
UyUyU
1Q1T-0-1
1-11)
1-1-U
1)U11U
1-1P--
,U0y1
-0-1-
01-11
-1y1Q
1U01U01P
M,)1-U
11T--
1)-11
-1)11(-
011--
1)11-1-b
11U,-1)
U1--1)
-1U11Q
1U21U2
2U11-
1U1U1U
VY11y
$-P11
-1U11-
212U1
-1U-y
-1y1$
Q1U1-11Uy1
-yU-QU
U21Q2
1U11-
-1U11UU
)U11U
y-1V^1U21
y112
-Q-11P
2U1V1
--12U11-
-11)11-,
11V211z
1-11Q
y112
-1-U-
1-1-11
211-1
)1U1-
Py-11
11-1QY
1-1121
1121U1
V1U12
11-211
1U11V
U11211
11-1-1-11-
1-1-1
-11U:
T1-,-
-11U1
0U1P11
11U,11U,1U
-1U11-
1-1-,
11-T-1-
U1-1-1-
10-1-,U,
QT-,19
TP,)-1
U,)0Q
121211V
1Q,Q1]
-1--$
]yyUyU
1UU211
-1V22
,Q0y1y]y
$11P11-1
$1T1-T1T,U
1,M0--,1
-P1U-T
P1-T10
0Q0-0Q1
U1-,U
,M0--0Q
,P10P
1-,1y1T1T
,$1T1Q
,-P-,y
U0-P1-T,1P
U,10U0-U,1
1y]P1T1$
PMU0]
Q)P1Q
U0U-x-U
1x1x1Q\y
y]UUx1x
0-T,-10
P1U1y0P
-0P(P
P(11y01
]yUTU
UU-0y1x1UT
y]xUx
UxU,U,
(]1]Ux,
UUTUUxUT1T
xUT1-
U1T1T
UP,,-,Q,1
-0,-0Q0U,U
y]U]y]y
1y-LUP1U]x
x1UTUUy
-Q-1Q(
1-0-1-1T1U
10U-1T
0-1-11-
-,P-U-TUU
1T1T]y1y01
Uy]yUx
--11-1-U1
P-1)P-
TyTQ,Ux-t1
U0-T1T-
\yy]x
)-,--
Q(P--T--pU
yUu0yU
y0yUyUyUyU
UxUxTy
yTyTy
,-0Q0-Q0
TyUxP
-0U-1Q1
1-,1-,1
QUTQxUx1
10Q0U11T1-
-010U
-1Q0Q01)U
1U-T-
1x11U11T1,
1Q11T11U10
y]UUy
UY1y1
1U1U1
p318-1
ftsTitleOverride
Textiles (page 1)
ftsTitle
Raw cotton - one of the many natural fibers used in the production of textiles. Natural fibers, whether derived from plants or animals, are relatively short, and must first be spun into long strands (yarn) before being woven or knitted into fabric.
Textiles (1 of 4)
Mankind has always needed clothes, so the history of textiles is a long one. More than 3000 years before the birth of Christ, Egyptian mummies were laid in their tombs wrapped in linen, a fabric woven from flax. The Chinese were weaving delicate patterns in silk by about 1000 BC.
The creation of textiles requires two processes: the spinning of yarn, and the weaving of cloth. The basic principles of these two crafts have not changed since the earliest times, although the materials used have been supplemented in the 20th century by man-made fibers.
Natural fibers
Natural fibers come from a variety of sources: wool from sheep, cotton from the seed pod of the cotton plant, flax from the stem of the flax plant, silk from the delicate webs spun by silkworms fattened on the leaves of the mulberry tree. Among the more specialized fibers, the Angora goat produces mohair, while cashmere comes from the Kashmir goat. Camel hair and the fleece of the vicuna, a relative of the llama, are used in rugs and overcoats. Jute, a plant fiber, is used for making sacks and carpet backings, while hemp, another plant fiber, is used in sailcloth and canvas.
In their natural state, none of these fibers is very long. Wool fibers may be up to 20 cm (8 in) long, and flax a meter or more, but cotton fibers are rarely more than a few centimeters and are often as short as 3 mm ( 1/8 in). In order to make a continuous strand or yarn, the fibers have to be laid out in parallel lines and twisted together in the process called spinning.
In knitting, fabric is produced by knotting continuous yarns into a series of interlocking loops. Knitted fabrics are generally more stretchable than woven ones, and the range of patterns that can be produced is more limited. Here a worker is seen checking for a rough beam flange on a high-speed nylon knitting machine.
Textiles (2 of 4)
Spinning
Having first been cleaned, the fibers are carded (laid parallel) by rolling them between two surfaces faced with points. Then they are combed to remove short fibers, and rolled in machines that pull out the yarn and give it a twist, which helps to hold the fibers together. Stronger yarns are created by twisting two or more yarns together, and mixtures are made by combining fibers from different sources, such as wool and polyester. Finally the finished yarn is dyed and wound on bobbins (spools) for dispatch.
Spinning was originally done on a simple spindle - basically a hanging stick, weighted to make it spin round. A measure of mechanization was achieved by the spinning wheel, but it was not until the late 18th century that the process was industrialized. The spinning jenny, invented around 1764 by the Englishman James Hargreaves (c. 1719-78), allowed several strands to be spun simultaneously. Within a few years Richard Arkwright (1732-92) had brought mechanical power to spinning in the form of the water frame. Another British inventor, Samuel Crompton (1753-1827), combined the advantages of both earlier machines in his spinning mule of 1779, which increased the speed and improved the quality of yarn production. Continuous improvement in mechanization since the 18th century has led to modern machines that are capable of producing thousands of meters of yarn an hour.
Unlike natural fibers, man-made fibers like nylon are continuous. In principle, therefore, they can be used without spinning to make items such as net curtains, nylon stockings or tights. For more substantial garments, however, several filaments are wound together to make a thicker yarn. Synthetic fibers may also be cut into shorter lengths, and then blended with natural fibers and spun into a combination yarn.
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
^;:b:C
9y11]
^>^:c>
1]9]1]11
_>;b >
U91U1
Q1:^:
9U1]991
9U9U1
b b
1109U1
B b
?fcf b
>b >>
>;b:b
9U]U9
9^9U
991U1
2V22VV
VZ2^_
2V2Vz
2V:22
V2:zVz
2zVVzz
Vz^z^
9]1]9^
1yQQM
b90P,m
1U1U1
0PtPU]
-1-t1
U-0UU
U81y11T1-1
:-101
U0U1U1
T1y1^1
:U01]
1U1T1
y1y],
]1]0:]
]1 ]
]^9U9
1U119
01U10
:^:9]
]^:9:]
Y01U9
011L1
Y1^11
U9Q:b
1U]U9:
]1UUy
59:91
U-LQx--
>^9yU
99U911
]UUyU
U119U
:Y19y
UU:1
9^1]:
y1]1]
:y^bQ
^9:9_
11-]11
T:U1^9U9
:^:U1
9-9U0
19^1U1:
:Y^Y:
9u9_]
U1U1:Q99Y
9^1y1
:1^U9
0]y19Q
]1U1]0U1
^V]by
11:U1UY9
] b :y
1U1U1
11U91
19y0u
(QPyQa
z]yT11
910--
>-:Q1
-8U1>
^?f:b
T1-,]19U
2V:V
^bb>b>
P1tQxQy
9U9y1U
1U11U1
U,u)x
y1UT1
U0U1]
bf>:
11PUuP
1T110
Y]Y9]
:]9^:]>
UT11]^
1U1T1
1U9U1
=]9]1
1UU11]1]
e]99U9U
b:]9:
V2:2^
\11]181
]1109U1
]Z1]U]
]U9U1U9
1U19y1]
9]9]]
U919U91
:U1]1
Qb ,U9^
U1U]U9
910U]
Q,-L,-
9]yUU9U1]
,L,P),-
P,1T-T1Q(
]1U19
bf>f:
9]9]:
b:a]81T1T,
t,(,Q,-L
U,(U,
,U,1-P1
1]1]91U
1]:1^
LP1x-T-1y1
Q0Q(U,(U
1P-1,)T,
11U9T1
:>b:b
:bB:c
-T110]1
]TU,(P(,p,
q,)TPT,TQT
,u0-U,1P0-
p0,,L0-0Q0
1P(1P,U,
P0--P(
]11]1
1U::^
1PTP(,
,p,-P)TQ(x
Q0t1P1tU,x
-TQUPUt1TQ
T,y0QUP0Q0
U-T,U,y
,1P1-,-,M-
-T-(T,,
-L0P-
P1UTy
=U00 TP,
-tTP1tUT-T
1x1PP1t1t1
t0tU,x-xQT
PU,1y,M1-T
-0P1x10-x,
QL-,Q
-0P-1uTQ0y
91U1U
l,LPP(t(tT
qTPUx1
xTU-xy,TPU
PU,,x1Q0,)
T,1u0U-0Q0
t1P)P0,U,T
-0P1t)P-T-
(TQTQ
1,,T10Q0P-
-0-U,U-T
0yPQxQT,
,PMxQx,qTx
tQL1t-0QPU
1PPQ0u,PM0
t-P(yP-p1-
Tu1P-M0uU,
,U0y-0PQUP
P-tUU,
U0V9^1V
PLUtP
uTt-pPb
TPyPUP1t10
t1P1tx1tLT
QU(UTU,u(P
1P1PT,L,P(
T-0P1Q0Ty-
-0-Qxyy
1x,MxQLU
,p-x,
Ut)x-pu1,y
P)0,U,-T,t
-(t-TPyP)P
UPU}11Y
)QUuU
)Q,Qx
L,yPyLu
PLup\
tLPUPUt0tP
TPxtytUxu,
UUX-,
QTQtUxQP0
p,yPxQxPTy
0Q0U5
0U:U9
1U--10
1P(PtPpt
tUtUP
QTUT>1
x0PLP,P(P
,pPQLU
,Q(-,uL
Ty-T-xTt(u
-UT-11
P-(P1PLtUt
LttyU-P
x,yPM0-y,
Q(Q,(1
Mttqtt
11U90aB]
x-xttyt
P]2^(
1x-t1ty
,T-(QpP
tMt-U1
Ty1xU
Bf>>\
PLQPO
T10U10U,U
110U-
U,U-0
Q11U1-,U
P1TUx
^ ^_^_
U01T10Q
(Q0-x-
U,U1P
1U10U10Q
U0U110u
yTUU0U,-,U
11T,T10
Q0U,-1PUUT
01U1T1T1Q0
-,M0U0
u0yUy,
HQ$-(
0x1y0
1y11Q01Q,-
1--1P11
yx1UTUT11y
U,y0yx-
HQ)uMP
0UTUUT1UT-
0U1,U
L10y1TUy
1P1Uy
^^bZ:
?jfB k
QTy0y1
u0Q,yTy
-u,-LQ
99U91^9
UY1U1
0]0x1xU
TPT1T0P0T
\UyTUTU01x
U,T1,y0yU
B >f bBb
1U011
]2]1]UU9U]
TxUxuxP
xtT,x-tLPQ
pPtpPPpPMt
Pq,t(t,qPy
,u(y,u(U,u
1tQTQ
]x-U8y
10Q-0U,U-0
U1,U1,yxU
-1V121:
:>:>f
0U0U1-
1x1x0T0
Px,t,L,P,,
p,-x,PpPtP
txPxUttUty
,yTyPytxuU
xuLyt1x-xu
xPuTytUTQy
T-T-pTQ,yT
QTQ0PT1tU
]xUTUy0U
UT1,U10-1
1,y0UB
11-19
U110U
1x1y]U
yTxTT
,ttPpUtp,t
,tt,tPQPyt
yx,xQx-xyt
Uxu1x1TPy-
x1PUxQTyPy
yxyQy
xPuTuxPytP
yTPUTyPyyt
UxPyPxQ(yU
P1P1t)UPM1
0UU0y]TUx1
UPU0U-0-1
P-UQ00y
1U11-1UTU0
PxPttLt
PqPp\
1tUtxQxPqT
(UPxU
ytUtyx1x
UyyxU0yPyT
u,yTyTPUyx
-Ty,yPy0y0
u0tUTPy0uT
yTtPy
QtuxQpUPMx
xuxQxyPy
xtUtxUtLyt
yPU1Py,PUt
Mx-x,U,x1
TUyTx1xU
U1T11T110Q
yTuxyPx
tUxuxQtxUt
,tUtt-Ut
Ux1xQxTU
,xu0yUuxTy
0ty1xTyxPU
xy,yx-xUt1
xPytxUyTty
PxuTuy
TuxtUtUtU
tyPytqTtUx
tUtPUPyPUP
tUPp1t1P1t
)x,TQP
t,U,,
Ty1x1yUT1
>f:c>
P,U,PPL
TtxQpT
QPytUx
UtytTtUtTy
xUx1T
TyxQTyPytU
yxUPxQTt1x
Tu1xy,Ut0y
PUUxy1Px,y
TQTu0uTy,u
xtyQp
tuTytPyTuU
tUt)xQx0u(
UTu0yQT-p1
t-x-t(-u(U
zTyTUTxUU0
U0U0y01T-Q
-1-9U1U10
1P1PUPUTQy
pQtty
PyPUt,
tyPyTtxQxt
UxtQT
yPyTxuTUPy
Tu0y,Qx1tT
UTxyPyxy1y
xUt,yTPUUT
Uu0QUPTuTy
PyTxuTu
tUtyQxQyPu
xUtyTytuTt
y0ut1PUPQx
QPQyPUTux,
q0QLU,yT,U
UyUyTUU0
yy1yT1Q0-0
:>^1^
x-yt1xUP
pQpTy
QxQxuTxyQt
-xUty
x,tUtytUxt
UtUxUTux-x
PMxUTPy,tU
QTUTQTUPtU
TUxxPy0tyt
UxuTpxQxyU
xuTuxUxPyP
quTup-pyPT
UTPUt1t1xQ
M,PMPU,1P
TyTyUT
10-01P
U:9]91^9]b
b:9>]9
UUT10yUxT
tUttUxxuL
PUtUx
xPyTuxUUTu
QtyTyyPy,
xQTPuTUTtU
ux,yTUxQTy
PU,yUtUxPu
xQxPp
PtUtMxytLy
tUtUtqxtTx
Py,yPxy,qT
tQp-p1t,y0
u(1Py,
yyTy1
0UUT1P
T1Y9b
1]9-b^
U11U91
UTUTQUT
-yTyTu
xuTyPx
QyTta
UtTtU
yPyTxU
txQxy,xUyt
xUTUx,uTTu
(yyPyUxyPP
y,xQyTtUPT
yPyxuTxQxy
tyPqtxPxQx
TuyPxu0uPq
,T-xuTux1P
)t1PL-(U
yx1T1y
19]b^=^:
Uy1T-TTU,y
PytUtx
TuTuTyyP
xuqTtyUtyQ
xuxTuTytyP
yUxQxtQxty
TPUxyTx-TP
y,yxy0yTyP
yQytUtxTtQ
xPyx-x-p1,
y0PLQPUPM,
UxyUyT
U10U-0
:9:]:
1TUPTUUxyx
xUtTx
xyPytT
yPxPxyP
xyUxTPUtyT
yTt-xtQxtU
TUtUtxTQPy
Pyt1txUtQx
-xQxytU
PxUtUtUuTy
tLytUtxQxu
LyyxUtuTQP
yPuTQtQUUP
1t0u0QT
y\UU0P10
1P1U0
9^bU9:]9
9QUxU
U,y1PUPU
UtqTy
xuTytTx
tUxu(yPxyT
xuTt1xQxuT
yxUxyPxTQU
P1xtyTyxQx
ttMyx
uTtQyty
LtUt(tq
Tty0t1TQt)
x,t)P-p1t-
yTy1P-
1xUP1x1xUT
tUtxQxt
xyxUx
PytUuxPxt
PUtUtyT
uPxPUxQyPx
QxPytUtyPt
yxUPyPyx1x
,yUTQpUxUt
uUtTtUtT
PtPttUtyt
UtUt)x,p-t
Mx-xxQq,y0
ty,U,
y0y01,
UTu1u0u1xy
PpttLtPpt
UtTtyyP
ytyPytUxxQ
ytUtxTQxQx
PyxuTtyTtU
tUtyTuTyT0
tPUyPyxUty
uyTtytM
xyTuLxQxxu
Ttt1tx1t)T
Qt1,P-(y,-
Uy8UU,U,
y0yx10U0yT
xUtPyTyxUt
tpPtMtt
yxUxu
tPyTyTyt
yTytTyy,y
QxytTuTuxU
xQxtyTyT
PuTyxQxPUT
yPyxyUx
tUtUtq
uPytMtyPyt
QtTPMxUPQL
0uLQ0QPM0u
0-x1P
]:1yyTuUTu
TUUuTyTyPu
upPtLt
uTytM
QxUtx1yP
TuxUtUtTyt
MxtUxUyPxu
xPy0ux1tTu
xUxtPyT
ttUtuxQxQx
TQty,x
uTUTQUtLu(
UPQTQTt)T-
,0Q(Q,Q
x-T0,
QtLtt
tyPyPx
PyTu\
yTyTyTu
yTyuTyxU
,xyPtyTy
xTytT
yPyyTyxuUy
txUxUuTuTy
xuxPuxUtUx
Qxyt1yPytM
t1tMyPyPpy
,xP1,p-T-(
y,QUP(Q0P-
UyUx110-U
UxxQx
yTytPyyxQx
tUtUx
xQxyTuT
PxQxPQxTy
TtxPtxu
LyxQtytUPT
uLxPTu0uTu
TQxTP1t-y,
U,T--xPU,M
0P)P1T-1P(
Uyy0U
UtUxyPtLyt
ytTuxP
xxuxUxyPxQ
xyPUxUuTyT
yPMTPLUty0
ty,yP1tLU0
t1PM1tUT,x
-p-PT0Q0-T
QP1,-
-,-T1
x]x1y1x
-,--,p
yyTtU
tyyPxyTytU
UxxPyT
uxUxuT
TuTyTuTuxu
xPytUTPyxt
UtUPT-x-yP
UTQ(P1T-x-
P0Q0PUP)x-
0P1,-)T-P1
,U,L-01
0y1-U
-901U
TytxUxPt
UPx-xQt
xyxUxPyUtU
tyxPyPy,y,
yP0u0PLyTQ
TQLy,LUQTP
-0-T-0Q0-M
0P,10,-0P
]xUy0
yuxUt
tTtyPyPy
xUxy,yT-TU
xUPy,yTuTu
0P-,U,1PQT
,1x,)TQT-1
P(-T,M1
xUUT1Q0
T1-09U1
\119U-0-
uyxuTtT
xyTux,u(yx
P1tUP1t(-U
,0u1TUPUP0
U,)P1,U,M0
P1,0P(
109-,
yPpTuUtUTt
xytMtyxTu0
tUy0uTuPy0
tUxTQ0t(u
t(U0-L1t-T
,)P)0-L1TQ
P1P1P-T-,
yTy1P,
yPyxPxt
PxQxP
TQxxPp1t1x
-t1PMU0t1,
U,1PUP1t0-
T,1PTQ0Q0Q
L1,Q0-
L-0)P
y1x1T-1Q0y
01U91U
yTyTuxyUtT
UPyt1
tUt0y0t0U,
xQT,t1P0u(
x-t1t1P1L1
t1P1P1,U,1
T-,U,M0Q
PTU,T11x
U]1U019U
xyTt1xt1PT
Q(Ux1PTQ(y
0u0QT,1T-0
-T,P1P1,0Q
0u,U,(U,(
yy1x-x1U,1
P1xyUx
19U911
91Y1]U1
tUtxy
PUTyPUTtUP
y0y0QPU,U,
T-x,UTQ0QM
0-P1P-L
UxU0UPU0y1
,pUxQ
19U1U9
TyTux-T,u0
yTQTuLUPUT
-PMTQ0QTQ,
1T,1P1T10,
U,-P0
Uyx10y11TU
0U-x-T0
19U]U]
TxUtx
UtxUtUyTy,
yPUPTy-xQ0
U,UUQTQx1P
y,)P,M0
Ux1yTU10U
0P1P10UPy,
yTyTxyT
QxyQyTQ
TyPTQT-x1P
T-xU,0tU,Q
TU,x-0Q0-,
1P-0,M1
yx]yy0U,
)0Ut1TtU
tPyTty0U
PT,P1,U0T-
y,1Q00)U-0
-UtT1P1TQL
10Q0QLU0QT
T-T,(-0U,
P(P)T
-tmuqQ
UxUT1
,U0-T
,1x,0
0UT1xUxU}y
UxTyy
yQxyuU
QT,1P,u-P,
P-P0--
U-P01PU
U,y0t
UxTTQTyyTU
xxUT1x1xUy
0U1xy-UTy,
1PUUPP1P)
TU1P1x011Q
01x-TQT]
1T9119
19U0U01U
,U1T11x1yx
U}UUTUUtTU
UTQTuTQx-T
Py0t-0t0Ut
T-0P10y-0u
-T-,U0-T
9]Z-9
0yT1-T1x1T
1x-T1t
9U9]9
UU0y0
T1U11510UY
U0T1P)T
,U0-P
yYyx1
T10UQT1y0-
y\^f^9_a^b
1U:U1T
Tx9]9]9
MQQqU
yTQ1U
UyTUU
,y100U0-U0
U9:9(9T,
0-8-1
Uy11-
1U,U1
T-T-x0y,yP
1U1U91
-LUPP
yTy0y0,U,1
U10yyPy
TU1x1y0yQ
L1TPy
UT1U01U0,
1-T-Tty
x,y,^
00]9U
>>Fjj
Ut)t$$y
y9U]UQxUy1
P1T::]?fb
yT-1T
,yTUtUx
]yx1]U
1]]}9U
Uy0U,Q
)T-0U0TUT
U,1Q0-TPy0
-0U11
1y,Q0Q
$1%P$
U,0Q0
-T1Q,T
tUtutUP
1TQ0-U-P1-
,x-UPTy
9y-UP
U,UtTxTyTy
Pp]UT
0-TQTP$
1P1-1Q
PUP1t1x
UxyTx
VzVzY2
y011-,U
T1,y-T-xPy
T1UU1]
10U,U0
1-,T-
]x1T-U0
P)1PUT1,
yPU1,,
U1-011-
-,1P-
0-1U,
1,QPU0yt(U
-1-110
T1U0-T
U0U0UT
1--0-
jFFkj
1:2^:
_::^2^_
,U0y1P01,t
101U11UU1U
Uyy01x1
]9:U0
_:_:^:V
:^:^:2
0-TQU,x1,
U11]1T10yU
U0UTUU
UTUy1
U01U11U1T1
]11U0
1-0yU
2^:3:^;
0Q(1P1
0t1-,U
U10U0U
y]yUyT
U1x1T
911T11]11U
U41U11-0
1;^:^:^
2^:;::
^::;^:^:
1P1PM
U010x
0y1UT9
1T91U1
2^::2:^:
]yy9y0
U0U1U1
:^2::V
::V:;^::
-,M,,M
T-xUxy
Q0-,-
yUU1x1U
)TUyx
:;^
^^:_:^
-,TUPU
^^:^>
^>gb
1U01-
Q,xy1}]
y0yx1
-0-PU
9:U9:
yyUyy4
19T1U
(U0UT
b f >
::U:2
1yY1y11x1
x0U1\9]b
::>c:
c: b
Ux1P1
]99]a
Uy01P
PUxUxy
yUy1U91
,-TUyy]x
2^2^2
U^^::
:2V:2^2^2
U1]91
:^:^:
Uxy-9
U]U,P
2Y:^2
6]9:^:1
2^:2^
:V:^2:2
9^9V9
:^2^:
:^:^:
::^:^:
:^2^:
22^2^
y1PUy$
Ux1y0-
:12:V2^
xQyyT
V:^2:2
:62^22
Uxy0t
:^:V2
2U29V
2^:^:^:;
^::^2
:^:Z^
::V2:2
:^^_:
^::V:
V::^2
^^_:^^
:^:^_
^:^2^
:V2^
::V::^:^::
^::^:
b^b
2^2:V
:2^::
V:>:^
:^2:^
Z^:^_
^:^;:
^2:^:^2
::^:^:^
:_: ::
^2^2:
^;:;^
cfb: ^b:;
^::V:
::^::^:^
^2^^:
^^:~::^:^;
2:^::
b > :_
^2:^::
:^2^:^::
;^::^
^::^:
:^:V::
::^:V:
:V:^^
::^:^
;^_::_
_^ ^
^::;^
:^:;:
^b^^
^:^2>^
bf b
::_:^2^::
:^2;^;
^2_^_
> :^:^
:2^:^
:^2::_:2^
:^Z:^^_:^
^;^^_b
b j k
>f_:?:
^2:_^_
> b
:^:2^
:^::_
_:^;:
^::;^::
::^:^:^
^^:^::
:^:^:
: ^c
b >f
::^:^:^:^:
:;:^:V::^:
^:^2^
V;::^
:_>_:^?:
>_>^:^
^:^;:^
_:^;::_:^:
:^;:^:^:^:
:^::2^::
:^:^::
:^:^:c
1-101]b
]11:1
b b B : :
::^:^:
:^;^:
^;^:^:
2^::^::
^::^::
^:^^:^
;^::^:
^:^::
:0Q0]1U9U
j b f
cB:^;^:
;^:^::^;^
:^;:^:V:
:2^::V2:
11U15T
::^^;^:
^:_^^;:
: :^^:;^:^
^::^^
2^::^2^:
^::^2
b]1U\1]
9UY9Y1]19U
51811Q-
b b
;::^;:_:^
:_:^;
V:^:^
1U01U9
0]101U1
j >g
:^;^:^
:^;:^
::_:_
V:^::
^:^_^:^
T91U1
^9921
b b
^^_:^;
:^:_:^;^:
::^:V
U99U1
bf >
_^_^^:
51]1]1U8U1
91U1T190
b bb >b
::_:^:
;^:2^
y1]UbU
1U9]101U1
1-]^]
b j
:_^ :
^: :^;:^:^
9]1U19U
;^::^_::^
:_:^:_::^:
1]1]0]10
910-1T-
;^::^;
:^;^:
^:V;:
]1U19
:_:^:^^_:
^:^:^
0]191
^;:c:
^:;:^:;^:^
9U9]9
]9U1U1UY1U
p318-3
Although modern looms are fully automated and electrically driven, the basic weaving operations performed are the same in principle as in earlier looms.
Two separate yarns are used, the warp and the weft. The warp runs along the length of the cloth, while the weft runs crosswise, alternately under and over the warp threads. The warp is mounted on a roller as wide as the bolt (roll) of cloth will be, and each warp thread passes through an eyelet at the midpoint of a fine wire called a heddle, all the heddles being supported in frames called harnesses .
As the harnesses are raised and lowered, they separate the warp threads, allowing the weft to pass through the gap created. The weft is carried by a hollow boat-shaped object called the shuttle. After each pass, the weft is beaten down by a hinged, comb-like device called the reed, so that the most recent weft thread is pressed close to the previously woven cloth.
The weaving process can be elaborated almost infinitely, by varying the colors of the threads or by altering the pattern in which the yarns are interwoven.
Textiles (3 of 4)
Weaving
Two techniques are available for turning yarn into fabric: weaving and knitting. Traditionally knitting has been used for hosiery (including nylon stockings), for sweaters, and for women's dresses. Weaving is used to create bolts (rolls) of cloth, both for clothing and for furnishing fabrics.
Hand looms have been in use since ancient times, but it was not until 1785 that the British industrialist Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) invented a power loom, in which the shuttle was moved across the warp mechanically. In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph-Marie Jacquard(1752-1834) mechanized the weaving of complex fabrics by controlling the loom with a series of punched cards that allowed warp threads to be lifted and lowered in the correct sequence. The punched cards were linked together as a sequence, and it took many thousands of them for the most elaborate fabrics.
The pattern of the weave can be altered to produce different effects. Satin gets its glossy appearance because the warp threads are interwoven not with every weft thread, but with every fourth or fifth. In damask, the same technique is used, but places where the warp lies on top are alternated with places where the weft does, producing subtle variations of shading. Twill weaves are used to produce gaberdine, serge and whipcord, and pile weaves for corduroy, plush, velour and velvet. The pile in such fabrics is created by cutting some of the threads after weaving, so that they stand out vertically from the surface of the fabric.
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Textiles (page 3)
ftsTitle
p0((8x
11-0--1-0
--0y1
(x0()
yy11Y
)xp($
0)-0-
90--1
10-(-
y--10
p318-4
ftsTitleOverride
Textiles (page 4)
ftsTitle
Textile printing provides an alternative to weaving as a means of producing patterns on fabric. Here a sheet of cloth is seen running through a color press, with large vats of dye standing in the foreground.
Textiles (4 of 4)
Printed patterns
Not all fabric patterns are produced by weaving. Color printing, using as many as 16 different colors, can also be used. This method originated in India, and the Hindi word 'tchint', meaning 'mottled', is believed to be the origin of chintz, the bright printed fabric widely used in furnishing.
Printing is done on a series of rollers, one for each color that is to be applied. Each roller, engraved with a part of the pattern, picks up dye from a trough as it rotates. The pattern is transferred to the fabric as it passes between the rollers, care being taken to ensure that the fabric cannot slip - otherwise the pattern would get out of register. After coming off the final roller at speeds of up to 180 m (590 ft) a minute, the fabric is dried in an oven.
Knitting
In knitting, the yarns are not interwoven with one another but knotted. The range of patterns is more limited, but with modern knitting machines far more ambitious designs can be achieved than had previously been possible. The use of modern combination fabrics in which wool is mixed with man-made fibers has also allowed garments to be knitted that are easier to look after and that keep their shape better.
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
,p,upPtLtP
,utPp,tpt
^>^HP
LtPpP
>uHPLPQL
lttLPPM
]b^>y,t(
ttLlt
t(-,M,PQL
aGzPq-t,
tLtLtPpPtL
tLPPMPL,(Q
,pPp,tLu(t
t(,pttL
ttPtL
)tPp,t)t,t
,LQPp
PpuPtp,uLP
-PptL
(t(ttMt
0ltLQt(
l,pPltpP
uPpuPtL
uPpQtT,M
ytLtPp
MtptPpPtq
LQ(t),
uLPtLPtpP
pPtLt
PpttLtQ
ptPqPt
tpltlP
)t-,,q
PpPpP
PlPtp
PLPpPPl-t(
t,p,Q(P$x
PLPPpt,ttL
t(t,p-p,t
LttPp
pltPpP
ttLtL
pPt(tLPLP-
PqtPpPlt
tpPpP
ttpPp,
t(tPP(lP
PptplPp
ttpPp,
lPP(t,p,
t,tp,p,PpP
Pltpt
:b9^1U
P(PLe
^>C]1
pPPLU,Ht
L,ut(t
tPLPptLtt]
tPpltltPpP
9 y]
1]>f>
TTU010T1
-Q(TP
P|1tP
0U1T1
1U\U8-
9F >B
10U]\]
?f?G>g>
?B?bC
bkbj
9b9bBb
a:aB>
?Bb?b
p320-1
Unlike other manufacturing industries, where several raw materials are typically required to make a single product, the chemical industry derives thousands of useful products from a smaller number of raw materials.
For example, ethylene - a product of the refinement of crude oil - is used to form a few major chemicals, which in turn spawn hundreds of derivative products.
Chemicals and Biotechnology (1 of 3)
The chemical industry turns readily available raw materials into thousands of useful products. Principally from coal, oil, natural gas, air, water, limestone, salt and sulfur, the industry manufactures drugs, fertilizers and pesticides, soap and detergents, cosmetics, plastics, acids and alkalis, dyes, solvents, paints, explosives and gases.
Biotechnology also produces useful products, but by biological rather than chemical methods. Living organisms - or substances produced from them - are used to make drugs, to improve crops, to brew alcohols, and even to extract minerals. Some of its methods, such as fermentation, are ancient, while others are so new that they are barely out of the research laboratory.
The birth of the chemical industry
The first chemical to be produced on a large scale was soda (sodium carbonate), which was needed primarily in glass and soap manufacture. In 1787 the French chemist Nicolas Leblanc (?1742-1806) devised a method of mixing common salt (sodium chloride) with sulfuric acid to produce sodium sulfate, which was then mixed with coal and limestone and roasted. The resultant 'black ash' was dissolved in water and then evaporated to extract the soda. Subsequently the Leblanc process was replaced by a process using salt, carbon dioxide and ammonia. Soda is typical of most products manufactured by the chemical industry in that it requires further processing to make useful products.
Other important landmarks in the growth of the chemical industry were the production of bleaching powder (a bleaching agent and disinfectant) in 1799, and the invention of synthetic dyes, beginning with Perkin's mauve in 1856. The production of artificial fertilizers, which supply plants with nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, was also significant. The first of these was superphosphate, manufactured from 1834 onwards by mixing phosphates with sulfuric acid. The use of electrolysis to extract valuable chemicals by passing electrical currents through salt solutions began in 1894 with the Castner-Kellner process for making pure caustic soda.
* CHEMISTRY
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* OIL AND GAS
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* TEXTILES
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Chemicals and Biotechnology (page 1)
ftsTitle
2127V12
1212U8
1V11218
2181127
721V1
212721V7
21712U8
V1127
U812[218
7V121
181V7V
1V1212181
1\121
12121
12U21
7V172
1\12U21212
U12V112181
21V1121
121212
18U12121
12127
12U1218121
121211V118
12U127
12[27
12[21
7212U27
1\127
7V1\11212
7V121
72U81
72U72
2[12112
72U81
1U121
1V7218U1\1
2[21\12[2U
2712\121
7212[
21212
1211V1212
121212U27
1212U
8U2U27
121V1121
2127218U1
121U211212
1212121
7V127
U12127V1
21[21
1V1V127V
7V181
1V1217
72121212
121V1
27212U12U1
8121\12[12
121\12118
12181
721727
2127272U1
121212U
712U21
1V18U7
721V172
1212U8
1V18U2721
V121212
112121
1V181V
21V127
721212
72U81
U21\11218U
121V11
7211\12
21812121V1
12181V12
1218U
211U21
712181
121\11
2181V11218
72U2U2[218
721218
12112
27V72U21
721217
1\127
1U2127
12127
121812
12U2118U2[
72121
121127
121V1212
7V18127
2181V71
11812U
7V121V1
12121
18121
[12[12121
721V1
2U21\1272U
12127
71121
21V121217
1V11212U8
127212
1212U817
112[21\12
[2121
112[21
12121
181V11V
1V12U21212
218U2
7V1\12U2
72U721
7V121
12112U2
127V1
121V18U12
72121
12[21\1
181721\1
1U2127
212121121
V112U11212
12112121
12[21
127V1127
1812[1
1212121V72
1\11\1
V1V118
72U21
212127
12127
721811
721212
112U81U21V
1V1V127
21[2121V1
72121
1[211212
121[211212
12[2U212
12U21
721121V127
7121[2
121121
U212[2
12127
212[2
2U212U12
1V181
12[21\
18U2[1212
721218U2
1218U1
72118U2121
8U21218U21
218U21218U
21218U2121
121V712
1U812
72118U2121
8U21218U21
218U212
2121212
121V172
18U27
7V17V1
7V17V17V17
V17V17V17V
17V17V17V1
7V17V17V17
V17V17V17V
17V17V17V1
7V17V17V17
V17V17V17V
1212U8
127V17V17V
17V17V17V1
7V17V17V17
12112
1121121121
1211211211
2112112112
1121121121
1211211211
2112112112
1121121121
1211211211
2112112112
1121121121
121121
1211211211
2112112112
1121121
@AA@A
AA@AA
p320-2
ftsTitleOverride
Chemicals and Biotechnology (page 2)
ftsTitle
Drugs from the pharmaceutical industry form a major part of the fine chemicals sector of the chemical industry. The acceleration of intensive research and development in biochemistry and pharmacology has led to a huge increase in the availability of powerful and useful drugs.
Chemicals and Biotechnology (2 of 3)
The chemical industry today
The modern chemical industry can be divided for convenience into three categories: the heavy inorganic sector, which includes fertilizers and other chemicals produced in large amounts; the fine chemicals sector, which includes drugs and dyes; and the heavy organic sector, which includes plastics, man-made fibers and paints. The term 'organic' was originally used to designate any chemical found in living organisms, but today the term refers to any chemical containing carbon. Because of the facility with which carbon atoms link to form molecules, the variety of such compounds is enormous - literally millions of carbon compounds can be synthesized.
In the heavy inorganic sector, sulfuric acid is by far the largest single product. Nearly half is used to produce superphosphate, with the rest going to a variety of chemical processes, including the production of explosives and artificial fibers. In 1908 the German chemist Fritz Haber (1868-1934) developed a catalytic method for combining the nitrogen in air with hydrogen to form ammonia, which is chiefly used in the manufacture of explosives and nitrate fertilizers.
In the fine chemicals sector, chemical substances are produced in much smaller quantities than is the case with (say) fertilizers, but higher prices are charged. Dyes are produced in a huge range of colors, originally from coal but now mostly from crude oil. Many drugs are also synthesized using the methods of organic chemistry, and some are produced biochemically.
In the heavy organic sector, materials are produced in large quantities, usually as raw materials for further processing into plastics, fibers, films or paints. Typical examples are benzene, phenol, toluene, vinyl chloride and ethylene. The raw material generally used is crude oil, which contains a range of hydrocarbons - chemicals made up of carbon and hydrogen. From crude oil individual hydrocarbons can be extracted by distillation or catalytic cracking. The hydrocarbons obtained in this way are then used to build more complex molecules by polymerization.
A vast range of pesticides is produced by the chemical industry. They are a crucial element in the battle against insects and other pests that cause economic damage to crops or that produce disease in humans and domestic animals.
Chemicals and Biotechnology (3 of 3)
Biotechnology
The technique of fermentation, in which microorganisms such as yeast convert raw materials into useful products, has been known since earliest times. By the middle of the 19th century, industrial alcohol was being produced by fermentation in much the same way as beer or wine. After the price of crude oil went up in the 1970s, alcohol produced in this way has been able to compete under some circumstances with petrol, and large fermentation plants have been built in the USA and Brazil to convert plant material such as maize into fuel.
A number of acids can also be produced by fermentation - vinegar (dilute acetic acid) being an important example. Citric acid, widely used in food and drinks, was originally produced from citrus fruits, but a fermentation process developed by the US Pfizer company in the 1920s soon dominated the market. Pfizer still produces half the 250 000 tons of citric acid used every year. Other chemicals that can be produced by fermentation include glycerol, acetone and propylene glycol.
Fermentation has proved equally useful in the drug industry. Following the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin in 1928, large-scale fermentation methods were developed in the 1940s to produce the drug commercially. Today a large number of drugs are produced in this way, as well as other biochemicals such as enzymes (biochemical catalysts), alkaloids, peptides and proteins.
The technique of genetic engineering has greatly increased the range of possible products. By altering the genetic blueprint of a microorganism, it can be made to produce a protein quite unlike anything it would produce naturally. For example, if the short length of the genetic material DNA responsible for producing growth hormones in humans is inserted into cells of a certain bacterium, the bacterium will produce the human hormone as it grows. It can then be extracted and used to treat children who would otherwise not grow properly. The same methods can be used to produce insulin for diabetics, while sheep have been genetically engineered so that they produce a human blood-clotting agent in their milk.
Environmental hazards
The damage done to the environment by the growth of the chemical industry is an issue of widespread concern. The first attempts at controlling pollution by legislation were made in the 19th century, and today the chemical industry throughout the world is heavily circumscribed by legislation. Such legislation is not always successful, however, since poisonous discharges into streams still continue, and there is little control of the dumping of toxic wastes.
A longer-term hazard is posed by the use of fertilizers. Although nitrates have contributed enormously to the production of food, they can pollute lakes and streams, and by percolating through the soil can reach groundwater. Controls on the use of such agricultural chemicals may soon be needed. There is also anxiety about the use of genetic engineering techniques. It is possible, for example, that an accident could produce super-resistant species of germs or pests.
* CHEMISTRY
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* OIL AND GAS
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* TEXTILES
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1y]]1UTU9
]y9U1
y91x1
1T1TUT10y
9x1y0
01y]T
U1y101]
U,y0U1U-0y
Uy,U1x]
y\1yT
T1yy0U0
9P]yTUUx]
y91yUQ0-
Ux-U,U1x1
,-U\U8
y]U\y-
U1x]Q
yy]yY
yyUT-
0P11P
1yUyU11
yx9U1
U-1T]U
1y]yy]y
UTU]19
-U0UUx1U,
1yyUY
TUUyT
-x11]
1y,U,UTU
1yTU0yUyU
1x1y1
Uyy0U9y0-1
yY9-1y1
x1TUTy
9-T1,
TU,U,-
1yUU]
0PUTQ
Uy0UUY1UT
]T109y]
]y0UT-10y5
0yTU-
P9U10
U11T,1T1Y
1U]y0
T90Q0
\-0]10x1,U
9y0]\U1UU
y]1-10
QT1P918]-8
-\U1x9
]1y]U0
1T19U
\TU1U
x9y909T
1U0U18U]
U0Qa\
T1$U0
T,]1x
1U\U]-0
1y\U0-T1
99U0U
01T9U
(9-9U
,U0--0
]T]0U-11
TUT,y
1T11P
9T19U1U
810]9
x9,1]T0y
0-xU9y\U
10U1T
1U0UT
y1T1T
P90UT
5\UT]\]Ua
y81T90
(y101
P9\y0U0
U11P1
1x11P
1U1y]0
QUT11TUy
0y11T
U,19P
U1Ty0y]
UU9U-
PUQT-T
-0]UUTU
0]],U
y01yT
x1Q0-0y
UTU-U0
1TQ0U
UUy1y
1y]y]-U
y1]0y
0P]UYU
1T]-UT
-01-9U
y]u9U]
U1T-]
Ux1TU1y,y1
10-1U]
UUx]y1
U0U1xU
U$]-]T
T1U]U]U0
,1\U-TU10U
T,--,
U,U-TUU
1T11,
L-T1P11
1Ux10U
8UTU-0
0P1\1U\U
y]U]U0T-
]U01T
Q0P0]]Y
10U]T
U1t10
1T]U-0U
11U]]0
]y1$UU\-]T
-U\U1
1U]U0U
]UT1U0
1U]U]
1,-U]
0]TTU
]U9P-0
y01y0,--1
]U]U0^
11T-T1
11P90
1T18U
T1-0y8
UTU\U\U
91U]]1]
110y]
1T1UT1
Ty\y1T1
]U]U0y09
-U1-0
-P119P1
U\y9T
TU]-0-U
P11TU
U,1T1
-1x]U,y
-y1UT
9]P]$
]]L-\
-T]U8
]y]xU]
U]UYU
TP\U,U
U\y8U
-T1x]U
1UU-0
,UT$1
UP1y1
-U,1T-
1]]yY]
0UUTQ10T
yTU09
U,1UU
1U]y-T-
TQ\$1
y1U]1
QTUTy
UT]TU
,y0U10
-1T11
U1Yy1
y0U,,
U,Ux]y
UTU1x
y]YU1y
]T]U]U9y]
,1U01P
\y1U]U
x1-,UT
TUU11
UT]U1
1U]-1
1]UT9
\U\y9ay]\]
-1U1]
T1Q0T
1]UT1U0]M9
]U91U
T]01x1
9\U11T
9-T]1UT
tUxQ1,
1U1]9]0
T-]U1]]
]U]Y1-0
1-1T,
TU1PU
Uyx]Q1
-yUP1
1y]yYy0
\1]]Z1U1\1
0T9U0
1P-P0
0U0U]]
y,U1x]y1y0
U\QUT
,U,yx
U0U010
T1U]T
T]y]1x
01P1x-
UQ]0Q
yU1U-yUy1x
00y\U
18U]]09
T0,U0U0
U1T-8U
1(-1-
T1,UT-
,y,1x
1Ty-y
M1x1y
0U1x-
,1T1UT1
P1-81
]U99]
PUTUU
y1-]U1T--
U1y]y
UUT--,
]UUx1T1
\U181
x-T,-,y]
Q1T-T1
P1T1y
-P]Y]U
9UY]1U9
-]]1]
,1T10
U0U1T0
P1yUx
UT]UQ01T1]
1U0Q0U
U1x-U
]U1U0
$11U0
M,]TT1
9-010,U1x
U1-1T
U,9y0
-]P(]T]]U]
]0Q0y0
]U0T1
U0U01-T-1
U8yT-]U8
TP1P1
]TU]y
10UTU,
]$1x9TU
1UTU]1x
U\Ty\
YU\U1
9U010U1U,
T,T]T]
]U0U9
1T-1T
1\UUQ
\]]T1
010U]
P10U,
U,0U01
y0y91y8
]]9Y1U
xUyT11-xy
y]yyU
-T1-,
]\-T]
1PU1,11
0UT-1T-xUy
ax1]T
]U1y01Yy
0,U0y1TU
P1-TUy1xUy
UU,yy]
]\9y,9T,P
M0-,T
Q-010y0
U90-x
UT0U,
y0U1x
1UTy1
0-U1U]
U]U1P
U0U11Uy]y
yUyUT11
U1y10U-1P1
yTQ01x]yT
]U1y0
0]y]U]
$1P1y
]yYUY
]y]yx1x1T
x-U11T-T
U]U0U,
U,-UT
-yTU]
0]T1,
1y1y1y
]U1yUy
]UUT]
1xQ1,U,
P]PU1x
U]U1U]
U1y]U
1T9T-U
T1T]T
y]]UT]
xUP1U0
]TUT]
\U0y0y]
U]1P9y
1T9T]
1U]]T
UU1T]
P1x-T,1P]
,11T1
U11]y
T0U0Q
1PUT0
P1-\UUT
y0yU-10UU
U,1-T
x]P10,
-0U19
]yyUxU
y,y],1T1P
8P1T10
1UUP1y1
Q01y]
Q0y0U^0
U10Q)
Y0T10
U,xU0P
UU011U
0U1yP1P1
0L1`U
UY]U-U
1P11x
]1T10
U0y0T,1T10
P-1T1
1xU]]Y
U0]T,0Q
0UY9L-U1T
]-U\U0T]T
,1T]U0
UT10U
1P]yU
UUTUTU
]U1P1
1,U]T1
y-TUT
U1$1xUaU
,-10U0y
1$1T1P10
y0P]T10
]-01)U9-
0U,U91
]-],1
y1,]1
y1-0U0
-0U1T1\U
1Ty9T
1P0U0y0
-T1TU
Ty01U
011T,yU
)U,PU
TUTU1
TU]-1T1T-\
y8U10y\UxU
U\y,1
y0P]U]
1P101-0
1P9-09
9QUU0
1P10UU11
U]UTU
1x10]
Q11P)U0PUU
y1PUyT]
1-T1y
1P,U,
1P1P10U]\]
0U]]0
10-T1P1
UT1x1U1y0
y00U0-0
0U1T1
1-]x-T
]yT11P
1\10T0U]
T1U0-U0u,
0P1T]
-(yy\
]\-]]U\
U0U1T1
QU-0y-P11
Uy0y1y01y8
T1Q0y
y0-1P
11-]P
9P1U0
TxU1]0
]Q\U10x1
01y01
1P1P1y]
]x1UPU0
1T1T1
]]8y11U]x0
0U01y
0aU\Q
UT1U0,U)P1
y1yTy1
10yU,U1U
UT]TU]
T,yT-50y
U0-1y1y]U
-T011U
]M11Q-,1
y01U-,0
TT0U\y1U00
1P1P1
1UT1U9
}\UTU0
P1yYU
yP1T1y\U
1-T--Y
U\y1]
1,TUTU9|1
yU,UU
1T-y0
U1-]y
]yT]UU
U]U1T]
U0Q11
1T]T]y10
P]0U]
--TUP]
y-UTU
5-Q\-
0y1UY1y10
U0P0-QU
UT1Yy9
,1]x1T
]y1U]
]y11U0]UU
M,(11y]U1
UUx1y]]P1U
]U]1y1
UT1T1x
TU]T]U
U0UTU]x-
1Q9U1Y9
-T,Q01
-T]T1UTy10
y1xyT
P9x11U-011
91-0U
9PUT1
0y00U,]0yT
9UQ0UT9T1
1U0U01
,1TUT1
T-,1T
y1TU1UT
]U1x]
U1P]U
T01TU01
U0,]TU8
-T]01T1-U
1U1T1
1)UTy
y]yxU
0y11y,T
1T101U0U
1T1-9
-1P10
-T1-1x
y1QTP-T]T
,-1y1
yU0U0
,1\0U\U01
)1P1-
UQ],U
P1U0U0
1,]T1
,U,y,
0QTU01x
y1,y1Y
yTU0Q
-UUTyU
1yTyU
0U]Q1
P1T1xy]
1U]y0]
1x1Q(
y0]TU
1\UUT
1UT]11
U0-UT1U
UT]U,]
P101Q11y
-1]1T9T]
-01y1
1x10-
1U01T
1T1P1T
0,U0Q0U
]TU]]}
UUTUU,
,]1T1-0
x1T,1
0U1P]
xy]Ux9x1y\
]UTU]y
Ux]T1
,-T11P1
--T1P1
y1y]1
y0Q,U0-
,U(U0U1
-,-UT
y1x0181T1-
,U9-9T1U1y
9]]TyU
]xy1y9
Q01T1x
1T1T11T9U
10]TU0U10U
M1,\1T1
y181U1-
UUTUy
y-0UU1
190$1
x0UTU\T,U0
]T1T1U0
U1-01T18
yeU,U
\yU\y1
-81U0U1
QT1y0
1U]TUT
-TUU\1T
Q9-]U
11y\-
1U]U1x
01T1T1x0
1P1yTUUT1x
1T101]TU]U
01]U1U
Q1y8U1
T]1U0
-1-,1-]
UQUy11T1UT
1T1\,
11U1U1
1T-T11T-0
1xUy-
01T1T,
,U0P1U,UTU
1U]1T1y]
-Q-1-
Q11TU
]Q1U1UT
-Uy0-
y1-yx1y
10]TTUT1T,
U,11U
10U0],
U]\UT]T1\y
1y01U-
U10y01
TUyTU-
U1xUyYU
TT1T1$0U0]
0-\UU]\UT
11T1x11T11
Q1T1U-
-1u1P--0U
-U\Q1-01
T1T0U\]T
,)T1y0
U0Q0U
,y0U10
yUY0yT
0y]T10U
0U1x9T]
-0Q1P1x
U01P1
1T-,U1U1Y1
-0P]x]
1U11U9U
]P1U0
Q01T1UU
U11T]UT
1x1Y1x9U
Q0U0Q1
10PU0U
91T9Y1101U
0U1U9
U1Q11y-0Q0
]U1T]
11T1y1U1T1
U9U0-
UT,10
1t101y-
1U1P1
U01UUx1
-11y--
10UTU]U\
0T,T1
,U,-,1T1PU
L]T1,U10
U0y11T]U1
9QT]-
T]10y1T]U0
-0U,U
Uy,Q0-T1
1-0-Q
T-])U,
1-Uy]U1
0-0y0y11y-
1y]T-y1]U1
1xyx1Q1T
U0-UP-1x
1]1U1
y0U,U1U
U9T]P
01,U,9
y1P--
UTU1y
y0UU01y-
T-U1y11
1y,P1P-L-T
-P1y11yy
1-TU1P1]-P
1,Q1U]-
10U,-
UUT1t-1y-,
,-y0U
U,-T1P
U,-1P
0yyUY-TU1U
Q01P]U-
1T1T1T1T1
UTQ\UUy,
U-U0Q]U-U
x1]U-yY
0UU]0
8U-0y1--\
TQ1P1P,
1UUy0]\]y1
U1U1]U
0-U1UU-1
0y]U1
1PUU01x
y1U\U
TUT]U0U0U0
1Q1]11Y
11]TU
U]T]y,
UxUy0U
U0--T11T-T
9y99U-0
,-,y10
]x]x-1
0U9y1y
1U11x
1T1x9U
1x9-U]10
]QY11
UY1T1T1Q0U
T1y1T1UU
11y0Q
1T1U-
0yx1U-0-
U1T1-x1x1
T1-01UT
y11y01UUT
U\M9T
Ty0]y1
1,U8P0Q
Q1T1P11T
y0y1T1
1y1U1T1tU
x-]Q1TU
1,U0y
1x91T1
10Q0P18Q-0
1Q01y1
-1-U1P
P0T10y0U,U
,0,TT
-T1-x
U1y1P
]T1T-T9
-x-,)y
U1x1x11P
)T1Uy1
x1yU-
U,U10Q
,U,11T
y--0U-L0
1U0UUT1u
P1y8UUTU1T
y1TUx9y0U
,1y,y1Q1P)
1UT]]
1P10U1U0UT
11,0U-
-1UY1P9x
]L1P)01
10U101-
0U,]T
T0]U0-
],U11U9]
xUT,1
Q0U0T
U1U10U0
0-0P1-
P,,U,
U,U0P
T0T10U0
P-U0UTP
0U0U1x9
1y,U,
T,P1U,
Ux0Q(
Q0Q0P1
,U0Q0y
U,10P
P1xU1
5(U0y0
P,T-T
1U,y0T]U
]x1]1T1P
Q0y1x1
Q,x1P
UTU0T
)T0Q0]T1y
1T-T1
T-1T1U
1T10-U\1U
Y,1y8Q1
x01P,-
-0Q10-T
0Qy0U-8U
,0-PTP,1T1
x0U,U
p322-1
Picture
Outline
ftsTitle
In letterpress printing, the image is transferred to paper by means of type that stands out in relief from the printing plate.
In lithography, the image is localized on a flat printing plate by means of chemicals that attract ink, while blank areas are covered by a film of water.
In photogravure, the image is etched into depressions on the printing plate. The plate is then inked, and the ink removed from blank (i.e. non-recessed) areas by means of a blade.
Printing (1 of 4)
Books spread knowledge and ideas, make universal education possible, and provide access to techniques invented by others. When the first printed books appeared in Europe in the 15th century, the progress of learning began to gather pace. The information revolution that still dominates our lives was under way.
By the end of the 2nd century AD the Chinese had invented paper, ink and a block with a picture or letters cut into it - the basic requirements for printing. The blocks were made of wood, and text was engraved on them by cutting around the characters so that they stood out in relief. By the 14th century, individual blocks had been carved for each of the 80 000 Chinese characters. They could be arranged in any order to make up a page - the principle of movable type.
Typesetting
The really decisive advances, however, were made in Europe in around 1450, by Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398-1468) and Johann Fust (c. 1400-66). Both goldsmiths by trade, they used metal type - far longer lasting than wooden blocks - and a vice-like press to transfer the ink from the blocks to the paper. Each letter was separately cast, using a low melting-point alloy of lead, tin and antimony. The letters were then arranged side by side along a strip of wood called a stick to form words, and the lines were justified (made to fit a fixed width or measure) by inserting small pieces of lead between the words. By 1448 they had printed the Bible in Latin, each page taking a printer a day to set in type. A similar process to Gutenberg's was adopted by the Englishman William Caxton (c. 1422-91). He printed his first book - the first book printed in English - in 1475.
Printing using hot metal lasted more than 500 years. Its speed was improved by inventions such as the Linotype machine - produced in 1884 by Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854-99) in the USA - which could cast a whole line at once from individual letters typed by the operator on a keyboard. It was used mainly for newspapers. Its principal rival was the Monotype machine, invented in 1887 by Tolbert Lanston (1844-1913), also in the USA. The Monotype operator keyed in the text, which was coded into a punched tape, together with information about the spaces between words needed to justify the line. This information came at the end of each line, but the tape was fed to the typecaster backwards, so that the correct spacing was known before the line was cast. The Monotype machine produced high-quality results and was used for a wide range of printing jobs.
Today typesetting - as well as other stages in the production of printed material - has been almost entirely taken over by computers.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* COMPUTERS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* ART TECHNIQUES 2
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Printing (page 1)
p322-2
ftsTitleOverride
Printing (page 2)
ftsTitle
Screening. In lithography and letterpress printing, it is impossible to produce gradations of tone by varying the thickness of ink deposited at different points of the printed image. Areas of different tone in an illustration are therefore reproduced by a process known as screening (also known as the halftone process). The image is photographed through a fine screen, so dividing the image into a series of evenly spaced dots; the size of the dots determines the density of the ink at a given point - the larger the dot, the darker the tone.
Printing (2 of 4)
Printing methods
Three methods of printing are of particular significance. In letterpress printing, the method used by Gutenberg, the raised surfaces of the typeset page are covered in ink by rollers, and paper is pressed against it in a press to transfer the image.
The principle of lithography (or 'litho'), which has now almost entirely taken over from letterpress, was invented in 1796 by a Bavarian, Aloys Senefelder (1771-1834). The technique depends on the fact that water and grease do not mix. The images to be printed are transferred to flexible metal plates photographically, in such a way that the areas to be printed consist of chemicals that attract ink and repel water, while the blank areas attract water and repel ink. First water and then ink is applied to the plate; all the ink congregates in the areas of the image, and can be transferred to paper in a rotary press. A better image is achieved if the cylinder carrying the plate first transfers the image to a rubber-coated cylinder, which in turn transfers it to paper. This rubber 'offset' cylinder gives the method its name - offset litho.
A third technique is widely used for printing color supplements and magazines. In gravure (short for 'rotogravure' or 'photogravure') the image is etched on the plate photographically, forming cells whose depth depends on the intensity of the color. As the plate rotates, it picks up ink, which is wiped off blank areas by a blade. When the paper passes between the cylinders of the press, the deeper cells produce denser images, while the shallower ones produce lighter ones. In a related process, known as copperplate gravure or line intaglio, the image consists of discrete lines that vary in depth and width. It is the preferred method for printing stamps and banknotes.
TEXT BOX
COLOR REPRODUCTION
To print in color, paper must pass successively over a number of printing cylinders, a different color being transferred to the paper at each stage. The process is made simpler by the fact that any color can be made by mixing three basic colors in the right proportions. Separate plates are made for printing in cyan (bluish green), magenta (purplish red) and yellow, and the images from each printing are superimposed exactly on top of one another. A fourth printing is then made in black, principally to add definition and contrast, as well as to print the text and captions for the color page.
The four printing plates necessary for full-color reproduction are prepared from four separate pieces of film, or separations, which - when placed one upon another - recreate the colors of the original illustration. The separation is achieved by means of a color scanner : a computer-guided laser beam moves back and forth across a rotating drum to which the original is attached, measuring the quality and intensity of each of the basic colors at every point of the image.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* COMPUTERS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* ART TECHNIQUES 2
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
--11-
-1-11
y11--
11U11--U
1U11U11
11--Yy11
U11-Y
UU1-11
-11-1U--
1y11-
1U1--UU
11y11
-11-1-
-1U1-1
-1-11-1-U1
U1U1-
-1-1-1U
U11--
Y1-1-1
11-1U1-
--11--
--1--
U11-1
1--1-1-P
-11U1
-11--
1-11U1-11U
1-11-
U11-1-11)1
U11-11
1-11U
U-1-]
11-11
-11-Y
-11-1
-11-11
-y1U^-
-11U1
11-1U
-1U11
-1-1-
1U11)
y11-1-
1-11y-1
-1-1U
11-Y1
-1U-1Y
1U11-1U
-1-11
-1U1-
1U1U1-
1-1--11-
-1-1-
--1--
-1-11-,
11-1-
1-,1-
-1U1Z
U1Q--
-1-1-
1U-U11U1-
--,11
11-11-
U11-1y
--1-1U
11U1U
11U11
-1--1-1
-y-1U
1-11-
Y--11U--
1-1--
U--11
1-1U-1
-11--
1-11--
-1-1-
1U-11
11-1-1U1
11-1-
-11-1-1
011-1
--11-
)--1U
-11-1
1-1-U
1--1U11-U
-1U11U
U1--11
-1-1-
1U11-
U1--,--
1-11U1
11y1U
-11UU1
11y-11
-11U11
1Z1-1-
1U1UU
U11U1U1-1
11-1-
-1U1-
U11-1-
-11-11-1
1U11--UU
11-11U
UU1U11-1U1
-1-1-1
U1-11
1U11-1
-11-1--
11-11U1-
1-1U1
U-11y
Y1U11
1--1U
--]11
-1Y11
-y-1-
1Z--1
U-1-1
-UU1U1
11y11-
-11U1
-11-1
1U1-1-U1-1
1--1Y1-01
11U-1y11
Y1-1U
11-11
-1-U-
-1-11-
Y-11-
1-11-
-1-1-1
1-1UU
U11-1
1Y1U1
11-1U
1-11U
U1-1-1
11-y1
-1-11
1U-1-1
1-y11
U1-1-1-
1-1-,
-Y-1-
--1-1-
-11U1
1-1U1
1UU11
-1-1-1
-11-U
1U11-1
1-U-11-1-U
-11-1-
1-UU11
1-11U1-
-11-1
-11-1
Y-11U
U1-U1-1-1-
1-11U-
U11-11
--1-11U1
U1-1-1-1
1-U-U
1-U1-
11U-1-
Y11U1
U-1-1-1
-1U1U
11U1-
-1Y11
-11U1-
-11U1U
1Z--1
1-1-U1
-U11U1
11-1-
UU1U1
--11-
y1y1-
--1Q1
1U1-1
1-U1Y1-
11-1-
-11-1
1-1--
1-U1U1
1-1U11-
-1--1-
11-1U
11U1-
-1U11-11
-1U11y
-1U11
1-11-1
11--1-
1-11-
1y11-
1y11y
-1(--
1-1-1
11-1-
1-1-1-
-11y11-
1U1-1
1-11-
1-11U
-1--Y1
-11y11UU
1--11
1-1),
-Y1-U
-1)Y1
11U1UU--1y
-U-11
11U1UU
1Y1U1
1-1-U
1-1-Y
1-11--1
11y11-
1U11-
11--1U
1-U11
U-11-0-1
1-11-1-
-11U1-1
1-1-Q
-11-1
U1-1-
-1-10
11U1-
y-1-11-1
y1U--
-1-1-U1
11-1-
^11y1
U11U1
1-1U1
1--1U-1
U1-11
-U11-
1-U--
-11-11
U11U-1P
Y11-1
11-11
-11-1
11y11U
-y-1-
U11U1
1-1-1
-1-1U1
1-U-1y
11U-1-Y1-
-11U-
-UU-U1
1-1--1-
U11-1
Y11--1
-11-Y
1U-11U
UU-1-11-1
-11-1U
11-UU
--1U11
1-1U1-
U11--
]y11-,
-U-11-
-1-11
p322-3
ftsTitleOverride
Printing (page 3)
ftsTitle
Web-fed rotary presses at the daily newspaper Izvestia in Moscow use a continuous roll of paper. Typesetters compose the pages and the printed paper is taken off a conveyor belt.
Printing (3 of 4)
Printing presses
Several designs of printing press have been developed over the centuries. Historically, the various kinds of press were all designed chiefly for the purposes of letterpress printing. The methods that have largely superseded letterpress - gravure and litho - are carried out almost exclusively on some variant of rotary press.
In platen presses, the type is carried in a flat bed and pressure is applied by the platen - a second flat surface, which is fed by sheets of paper. In flat-bed or cylinder presses, the type is carried in a mobile flat bed that moves back and forth beneath an impression cylinder, around which a sheet of paper is wrapped.
Greater printing speed, particularly important for newspaper production, was achieved by rotary presses, which operate cylinder to cylinder. Letterpress type was formed into a curve by a process known as stereotyping, invented in 1727. An impression was taken of the typeset page using papier-mache, which was then curved into a half circle and used as a mold to cast copies of the typeset page. The curved page was fitted together with another page around a cylinder and locked in place. Rotary presses may be sheet-fed or web-fed; in the latter case a continuous roll (or web) of paper passes between the cylinders. Rotary printing allows much more rapid production than flat-bed methods.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* COMPUTERS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* ART TECHNIQUES 2
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
WTN.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"WTN"
defaultPage
fName
).tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Printing Web-fed rotary presses
**++*
p322-4
ftsTitleOverride
Printing (page 4)
ftsTitle
The layout of the page being designed on screen.
Printing (4 of 4)
Water-based inks are unsuitable for printing, since they tend to collect in droplets on metal type and smudge when pressed on paper. The solution, quickly discovered, was to use inks made of pigments dissolved in oil. Vegetable or mineral oils may be used, depending on the type of printing. The black pigment used is generally carbon black.
Paper
The earliest documents were written on clay tablets, and then on parchment, made from the skin of sheep or goat, or vellum, made from calfskin. A writing material prepared from the stem of the papyrus plant was also known to the Ancients. These materials, however, were quite inadequate for the huge volume of printed matter that was made possible by Gutenberg's inventions.
The answer was paper, invented by the Chinese nearly 2000 years ago, but not widely known in Europe until the 12th century. Paper can be made from virtually any fibrous material. The commonest in use today is wood pulp, but recycled material such as rags or waste paper are also used. After felling, trees are turned into chips and then digested into pulp using sodium sulfate. The pulp is bleached and then flows through a narrow slit onto a moving screen that allows the water to drain away. The paper is then pressed to remove more water and dried by steam-heated cylinders. Finally the paper is treated with pigments such as clay to give it a smoother finish, or given a glossy surface with chalk or titanium dioxide.
THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION
Computer technology has revolutionized every stage in the production of printed matter. In a fully computerized system, it is entirely feasible that the material to be printed will never have been set down on paper before it finally passes through the printer's press.
Text may be keyed directly into the computer typesetting system, or an author's word-processed disks may be made compatible with a particular system. The text is displayed on screen, where it may be edited or corrected; typesetting commands - specifying the desired typeface, type size and so on - are also added at this stage. A designer may then assemble the page on screen, juggling pictures and text into the final layout.
Next the text is set in type by a laser guided by the computer. The laser scans to and fro across a sheet of film or photographic paper ('bromide'), tracing the shapes of all the characters according to the instructions prepared at the page-layout terminal. After development, the result is a positive or negative film, or a bromide; in the latter, the characters traced by the laser appear black against a white background. The film or bromide can then be used to prepare printing plates.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* COMPUTERS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* ART TECHNIQUES 2
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
]yUTTUT
UUxyQQ1
U0U(U
QUxy0y,QLu
y]T]x
,uTx1,
tU1T1U
0UT-,T1
a]9yT
UPTU,
]tx9PP,$$
01Q0P1\
Px]t%\
y1P1U
}q8,M$
91,L-x9u
\UP,0-,t1P
,yPUPU,t
yLx1tx
PQTQyTU,U,
yx1ux1u(
-yTQ0QL1,(-,
u]yyTy0Q,QTy-L-0U
T-L0Ut
Q-p-$,x9
(P1IT
PU(UU0P1
(tUuPQQxQLPp,Q,y,P
Q81L-T-
0UUx0uPUQPL
]xy]yTuTP1
1ty,U1,-Uxyx-tUpPUx
yUx1y-
yQTUPytPp
UT1tPUx
y|Uu]U10y1P-UP
QpQytU,yxUt
YTUyt1U,0
lUTyt
,y0yP
xUxUy,U-T
yPyTyPyy0uLQTTuxy
-yTU0Q0P-
-x1tUP
-xTx-
tTt1tUx
yTU1y1,U
uTuPy0
-x0y,M1
yUxy0tyT
xTx1t11,
UxtQt1,u-
Uxy]yy0yt1T
yxuTUUXt
]1t0Q11P1-
\Uy0UPU
yyTy0u0y,),U,
l$$H$
Ty\yUt]p-P0-
$t(uQ
UyxUyx-T1U-T
Tyxx,
Uy0UTPUT-0,-T
U\y1xy0
0y1PQ0
bay9x,xTy
TyQTUU,10
x0y0UT-0P
Uy\y1x11P110y10
Tyy\M0uy1T--L-UT
9YUTUy
yatUx]
yT1110
y\xu0yT,10
Qllll
0910y]x
y1yTu-\u0T
9yTtP
-L,1P
aUyTx
91xPL,
UyTU,y0PP-,
,T-(QTQ
,1P0,1
UtItUux
y]yx1x
0P-L-
y]y1UQ1T1-
P0P0P
,y1P-0U,(y,1
1xUyy10
TUxt-x,M-T
]91\]y1T]y,U]t0y
9y0QTQ
99]8U1]0-1]PyxQ
UTxQTy0UUU1x10QUU11
T]UyTy]
Uxy\u\y
$]xTU,x-0,U,U
xQtPU
UuPUPy1yPU
Q]TU0UU
UT10U0U1
T]UTy1yy0y
Ty0P1P1y,xU0
Ux]UT]]
81x1QPU0u0UT
U1P1t1QTUUP11T0U1-
y0yy0PyTUPM
9yxA1UT
Uxy]yT
y]xyUyyTyUxuTyUx1y0-y0Q0U11T0]1UTU,)P1
UTT-u8Q)T-
u1x1x]yy]
yPy,TuT1Py0t
UUxUxy\y\u1yx1
19tU0y-0QL--PUT
L-T1,-,T-l-
-1,0u18QTUU0UUy0y0]T
QxUTU
U01,T,y,]
UyTUPy
xy0y]P
TU0y\yUU]-TU]1T01-0U1,-
-U,9y01,U
1T,-T,yT
,U10UU
yUU]y
yxT],y,UPT-t1U,T,t
U]u8UP]Ux9
yTuU1T]U
]yy]u
Uy11x9U0U1UTQ10U0Q(9PU-T1P
u0QUUx1
P1x,)
-,U0y0xUUTz0
1xx-TUyPyPx,UT
]U]1x
1QUTU
1y\1U1x11UT0uTQ-T]1L19y-
P-Px1xU
UUPy-PP1(
T-,U,U0y1\-0UTy0y
U0PL-0y,MP
Qx]yUU
x]y]yxUT]x1y91P1U0y0t1PPT1PU1T
1yTU1y
TyTyT
TUxUxQP1t
U-x0yTU,
\QTy1y
Ux1y1
1U]T1y
Q\11yUyUx]tUx1U
11]-10-
1P-T-
uTU1UY1
t0y1Ux-
T1P1y1T
Y]yxUx1U]TUt9tUPyTPUx-P]x
x-,,UY
]xy8yyTUUU9T
1y]TU0UUTUU1uP]
1\Q10
P1T10U,y,T1-L0
0tQTUU1
1U01xU-0Q0QUP01T$-T
x,)T1x1x
yTPp0PUtUTuP],x-xU
YUxU1T]1
QTUUy
1y1T-1TQ1
$-y1Q\
,y1x,]Ty10
,U,1y,01QP
P-TUT1\y
UxUxU
xUyPyuTUT
Tx1t-TUP,
y,U0P
yy0yT
UyY]UTy]U0yTyxy\yxTU01-
0Q\QUP-TT,1
Q,u1x-00Q
1QTQ0Py,y-T1,U1P
1TUtU1
Uu\UuT0uP,y1T0
UPUP1
yTy]tyy1
UUU811UUUUxyU0y0
-y09P-1T1UT
0,T-T1,U8Q(]%0UT
U1T(U
U1-1]
1x1y0UT1-x1tu
1x1910y1
UT1y0y0
yTQ8U1-811U8UT-U
--0-Q0
,1,1-
Qx1tt]xUt
TyxTl
1xy9u
UyYUU
UUy01U1Q1T1-0y,-x1
x1U0U0-PU-
0,(-,
,qQlt
TyyTx-x1
]yx]U
UPUxQ
uT1yU
19UTUUP
}0x1U09u\
-T10U1P1
0y0yQ0Ux1xTUe
x]1U0
9xUT1UTUTU1T-0U1T-P,U
QpQy]
]y\y,L
PyyPUQ
xyQxyx\a
xU0U-
10UUT01]0y0U10U
1y10,U,UQ
yTyPuT
,y0QUx
PUx,1P]-0U10Q,11-,-
]x]QPUUQ10yP(-,
xTyt]t
uTtyUxyP
,x-T9)P1T
T1,Q1
xUyx1
1x-TTP(
\-0y0
,]00U
yx]y,UU,
UyU\uUyy
x]ty\
yT]U9
]0tLy
]y\yUx
U]y\U
0PUx,0
tuTyU991
Uly,t%9
0x-x0-
U1a]1
M,-TU-,
,QTPM,t
,P,1,10-
,Q,1T1
uU1y1t,1P
]lxQtMy
y]y1xU
--Q0y1U0U-tUx1Ty,11T-T
$$Q,t
TUU]51y
$-,P)T1P1x1TQx-
,y\UTU0U-0
t-x0,PUt
-,Q-T-1--TU-U0Q011x
1,1y-
]^18y,
(P1TP
11U-8
-H$U,y
yUT-xU
-T1U1T
-Ux10U
y1tUTU
yUU1x19
$$-Ux
UT1QTyUuUy
-U11u
y0Q1U,y,y1P
UxTyy0y
1-,Q(
xUx1x1
y0-]Q
tP-T-P1
-x1Ux1T]UUx
]10yU,y0TT10U,1U,]0
xUxy\y1
xUxUy
tTyUTTQ0ta
UyTyT,x
,P)U,
ty8yUx1yTUy,y]1
,U-T111
11y0y1,y
x1T119U0U01y1U11T1U1U-yy11U01U1
y]yUx
1yxT1-YT
P1x1,QH
\yUU\y
P,Q--TU,1]PUxx1U11Y1UU]11QU\1QTQUUTU0t9T11-0U
UT1)x1
Lu)x8A
PyTyQTU1Ux,
yYU]-
P-(UQ11T
Q0QLu-yU]y8
1UT1xUy1x1
0yy1xy1yUT-T9Q
,9(1y10t-0
Tyy]xt
]x-yTQTUxPQ]P
x]yyT
xUux-x1yxy0y110-10Ut-1P
$Q$T-(
($y$y011T
yTUx1y]y0u0
(]y0yU
yPy1u0]UUQ]U1U0Q00
t1]UQTyTQ
x-T1y
xyUxTyTxy0y
,]yTPUPTQ8
Tt-UP1TUT-,M0Q
,10U01P0-,1,,-,
,Q)Q,UQx
1-x1y,
y1Q9]1x1Q1
U1x1U-y\U0y0yQ9-x190u
101U10
Y1091
y]yyTyTyUx
TyUxUyt9
1TQTy1y0T1y0-tM,(
xy]xQ
Ux1x1x9
U0y,U-y0P1L,M
L-$$-PUU0P0y09-t1T1U1
x9UUy9UTUUx1
yTU0U10Q\y
1y1U1Q0U\yx1UPU111U1U1U
1U1Q(
xUxyT
TTUtUTyTtUt)1t1TT1t0tU,10
1x1xUP1xy1U,U,1,Q1T,
$,q,U0y1TUPPyUxy
1y1Ut
1t1U0u0
ytUUQ1
1UUU1UU1xUy9uT
01y1Q]
x1y0yTUx9yPUx]TQ
y]txU
Ty-xUPyUtU]TQ,TUt10y
P1U,P
9yUT]tUUt0uTP1T
P(Q$x,U
--0UQP1x-y1],1xUY%T-Ux1yx1yTUU10y0
]U\1Ty,]yy]P
1x]]-x1-\U11t1TU
Ty0y1x1UP9PUQUU011P1
yt]xuUTUP\qUP1Q01x-,1-L,,
$-t%Y,
,1UU-PT110U191T11xU1U1
1TZUYT
]-y901TUUY
UP91U]]11t1y1xuU
L1--y
]yx]x
1tUxxUx]x1yx-,1PUTUx-x1P,Q,yH1P
Qxy]PTy]P9TTQ0-P1x1P
x1P1-1y1-P
1yx11x11x
UUT]111,1yY
)U1T-|Uy0yUUx1U0U1U
y1xyQ)
z;^ ?
yTx]xu
\yt]p11y
xy0y10y,x1y0UT1UT
x]xUt
U1x1x-TUU,U,0u0
$H$x-1xUQ,y0U0y01
yy1xUQYTyx]UTUTU0
xU\u1U
b ^;
Tyy\m1xy,yQx
UUxUyPutUUQ01
9yUy]y\y
yTyUyyYyTUx-
yTu0-T
(U1Tt
UUyY1-Ty1]x
1TUx9y0UUY0
xQy\q
b b b bB
TyUxUy
yTyy]uyx
UxUTQTx1
1tPUU1t]T1T
0P1y0t1--
yy]yx]
Uxy0U
0y]UTy]xPyx1x1P1t-0Q,-U0Q(
y,UUU8-y,11U1T1
y0y1y1UUU1y0
-xUU1YU10U1x
1UU]QYP
UyxTyxT
xy0y10TUT
U,Q0t-L,1u
UyUyTy
uUx-\Uu
x-T-LU
H-)1y
1x11U111UPU1x
UUU8y11
U]TU111PU
y01U1yTy]P9x1Y1
U9-yU
x]yyT
Ux1yUu0UtUx
PTUU,UUQ10x1P
yUxUYU
x]PyyUUyT
10Q1y10u0U0-
QT-U1P
1T-U-\-
\1Ty9TUU\y0-
T1U1U
Ty0U]1
1]U1UUU
UUUyT]1
y0yxUx
0ytTy,yyUyU1xxyPU0
1P1T-,U
yT]Ty
01QTU1,UYPU0u
P-0-P
HH,u01
P1-xU,U0yU1x
1yyx11T1UQT1Uy
UU]UxQ-]P]y
bf ?b-
|Uy\y0
yxUyUy]UU
9xU]P10u10U1Q(P1-10U
P]1xU]Ut]
Uyx1T-x-UTUT],y(u0)x-0
y-T1UT11P
P-Uy-TU
UT1U101U,]1t
Uu1Yy11]UUU
f j
Ux9Y]yyyTy
-tUT1-U0t-TT-PTPLL
]xPT]u
1y\yU0
ux-yy
QUTy1x,U-L-01,]
$1-,)U,--01Q\
11u9-,
-U11-1U-T1]UTTy10y11]1-0y
j b
Ty]yyT
pUx0yT
,p1yPuUx,y
Qy\UTy0u)TUU,911Q0
L,,M,-1-U
PUUTy1UT1UT
0PU\1-1U8Q81y0-T-Uy0
UUTU1yt1uU
YyTy0yUPUT,
,yyTyQUTQ)x1-TQ
TyUUU
y9y]UyT
]TyQUP9yTPUU,-U,U1TQU,1T-x,-L1
H,y,U11T11PUx
QP1PUUU]P
1Qy9qT
,U0U-yTU,y
y]yyy]yY
yUyxU
]t1yyU
uTUU]-y\UT
-1TUUTUTUTQ0t10Q
]Ty\yP
0Q\Ux
UQTTUQTy]
U0u(UT1P1T
H$--U1,U11t
Uux1UQT9uP11
T1U1U0U,1x1]U\Q
1y,1L10y-(yU
j ?
yx]yyUy
UtytUTUUT1x1TQ0y
0U,1tUT0QTUUTU]yx]xU
yTxy1yUxx1TUt1U10
U,U1x11t9
UU1T1UU
yQ\-U1t1T11]TU1]
yyU99
Uy\yyTy
QxyTyUy0tUxP1yxU,yUQPU
0$-y1UTQ--TUTx
0tUQ1]TUUU\U9U0
1UTU]x1uxUTUT9QL-9-,
1T1U1x
1T-1y01yUTQU,y
1-1y1U
y0yU0yyT
-x1U1
0QU],yy1x
11y0U-x-TUU1T1
x-0U0
T11T-
UT-01x-0Q0-)P
,1-01-PUUP-y0,x18u0
1y,1y
1xy9yUTUT1yt1
UUUu8y1
yx0yt1
11TUTxx1
PUx-TUTUUyxUx]yy0yT-xUyTUTu0tUtUTQPUQT%
0Q)x1-(y-0U0P1T1
UU1U1-
-x-U-0U8UTuT
yUxUyTyTyU
-1xy,
UyUxy]tuxUt1QU
P)T,-L-,-,
9,yxUt
UtUUt8
xTyyUU
TUyUUQy0y0
uMxUQ
,1L-0,
U81U,1]
T11101T1,\)x1
y\])x1y
-]TUyxUU^
yUy\yUx
yTyyxU
xyxyU
xyTy]xy1yTUT
TUT1Uy1yy-01yTU]x
Ty1TUUT1x1T-
10T1T-
Q0-0,-TU
T1-1-
x11]U,U11x1QUU10U-1
UT1t-Ty1t
yUyy0
yUx]U
-y1xUTQ]UP]1
)y1yT1x9Qx
y1x\x]T1y0yT1
UyTUUt1TQU]Qx-y0Q11P1P,(Q0
1--T1-
Ty,111,U0y,y11Q0]0u
y10y0-
Ty1UUU
0yxTyTUx-x
Q-,U,M
,M01P
>TUy0-TyTy-
PyUUU]uxUxU
yuTyyxxUu0yPy,y0UPT-1x10Q0--
-1T1Q1PU
y1U1U1U11T9M01,1U]1yTy1y]
T]yUYy]xyx]U\yT
yUxuTyT
1P0PU
QPP1U,,
aP0ux1xyTy
PU1yP]UP1x-tTU-,UTU
y-0yx9Q
qyUyQx
UTUyTy
t]y\yyUtyTU0
-tT-x0xU0yTQTUTy-x1-U0
uy]UxUyyUx
]ux1x]UT
01T1Q\-TU0y
1U\-0111
U9Q0y-1x1y01
--0y8Q8
\qx1x
Uxy1xTyxY
U1,TU-0-p9Q0Q---0-
TUx1T1TUT
1xUyyT
yTU]0yUUPpy
QTy]utUxUQ0-T-
QT119
U-,]--P
1-10U10U
u01tMyU
UTQ]t1
y01y11x
T-,P1P1-,1T
PUP-UU,
=Ux11y0UU0P
Txyx1
QxUty\uTyUTy
1x1UUxUy0U0UT-u-,t
x1--1
uTyU}xy]yxUxx
Q,Q(u1-P1-y,UUU,x1)PLUTQ10U,u
uLyUxUxQUy
UyTyTyUyTU]y]y
TyTyT
-x]y1xy11t0tyx]PTQ0PUPP)
TyUx1yTux
P,1)0Q1T,y
x,U-x,UQ-TUPPU0PQ9P1
Tu]U-T
Mx9xyyTy
1tUyUTyU]QU1TQ0y0yPU10U1)
uT1--
U1,)y
UTUxUyUxUy0y1yTy
1x]x1Ux
0Q1T1-x1xUQTU
U0-T11U,U
t1t1y,yT
T1yx1U1
Ty\UP
UyYUy0yUyTy
1x0Q,y-1-0U,U-x
y11y11x119a
kb b b b
yx-U-x1
MT1x1x
Q\QUUU1xx
U,P-x-p1P1,U,9P1(U-P1t10t1uUt)
UtyTy
TzUtUyT
UyU]xy]xyTU
]UUy0x-
-x1xUT0yPxyUx-T,1U
x1-\11
89c >g
1xUTU
PT,yTQPUUTUu1x1x1PUP11P9
1PQU,UU
bUTU,U
UyyTUT
uxyUxy
xUyyU
P1U0yPUTy1ty1t01T-
-19U111P1]U-10]9
] : bB >
yTxyTyPQUy0U11xPT
M,111uUUPU1PU,],u\M,yTtUPTP1x1xTU
>U-01tUU01y\y1xUUTy1x1
]y0y1y
y]YyTyU]PUUQ8yux1x0
t1-1-1,
U1TUUU]111
y1UU-
xUQTUUP9yU0y1y
U-0QT]UP1U1,U1TU0U0QTyQ0U11Q1-0U1,y-0-U
,yTUxy9t1UT
1-T]p1t
Tyyx1xyT
xUT1,y9Qp10y
x-T,t,
y0QaU0y0
PUUT1UTU1y0yyT
U-P1Q0y0yt1y1(y,QU0Q,1UTT
x-u1TUt11Q01
PMTu\yUx
U]xUU
1xzUux
}Ty\yx
xu0yP,y]tpUy0-,u
11y-1]1y
y0yQU1
> f >
yPy0y-TUyPyUPT
,T-t,y-UTu0yUQTyUP0
UtU,xUYUTQ,xUTyTT
,UQ0yP
1y1xUUxTyTxy1tUy
]u\y]yy
1Uy0yT
Qx]UU1UTP,U0-0
y11y1
> >c
QYxy1x
P0y-xTUTUTy,
TQT-UPU-T1xU1x1yPQTyQ,yUUPy1U,
u01-T
xUx9PUx1x1yTyT
0u0UUP-
U,y1x-
(UPy1UTU,]0-U]y
-x1UU-1T]UU
PQMx-Q0
1t11UPU1U,U8y
Q]T1x1,y0
x11P],U
y01U01
x1y,yx
yTUT1y]x1x
PU]yP
Uy]x1
y9y0UUx1t1xUUTx-t0Q
1Q]UTy
0yxU1
y010UUP1x-1TU1tT]ux-
(U0Q1PU-\Py010U-x9x-UTy1P
uyTyT
Ux]tyTyx1y\tTyt1Q]T-T
19UTyyUy
b > b
,U]P1x-Ut1tqxUUPy\qQT
Ut]pU,
t1xUtMTUP1tU
Uy\y11x0yyTyxUtyUy
QxyUxUy
xUy]1
Uy0-y0-U10,M
1-TUUU]1T
ybc :
U1TUxQLTyxU
TU1x1QP
1x1y0uUxyUTUtT1
U,P]1P1U0-
QxU0QyTx
y\UPy]yTUy9x
UxyxyUt]
-x-xUuTQ0TQxUtx-1P1-
M0]y1y1T1U1
Ut1T11
PU-x-yTU0y0
1x1t9x1QTU0y1U,y1U,yU1T
Ty0y1xU
0yT1y\uxU
UyxUUx
]uyT]P
1tPUTT,
U0-yTP1PUT11T1x-UtUUPxUt1PUTP]Ty1T1U
y0tUT1Q0y
-xyTyUx
TyyUy
yuTy,y1PQyTQ,P
1U1yxyTy1x91y
gb b
1y8UUT1t
QxyU1QUPUTyP-txUu\
1t]QPQ]u0
TyyTUxUy
Uyy9x1y9yTyPyT
1UUTU1yy1
,tt-xQ
x1y,1y,11y0ux-x
xUT1u1
UyTQ0yP
UTTxQ
Ty]U^U
TU]u0yUyxU\U-T1
T]0y10U0yTUQ(-,
U0y,M\
11xUUTy9xy,1PU10u9UUUt-UUTu-\Q
U010U,
xUUTu0U0y]yxU
T9P1T
tMQ,y$U0U\U]
xUy\yT
UxUyy
u0uUt1t]1xu
1UxyUx1y]tT
U]-10
5T,U0,Ut91y0x
TPQT]Q0x1T1T1x-xUQ0yy1UTPTyU
t-qPt-x1QTx-
yTyTxU
yTQTTUxUx,U1t(y0
9y]yx1y1U
TUx]QxQ
-xTyuUUU,y
QTUy-t1PUP\Q,,y1xU
Ut)t]T,
tQLQx10u0yPU
yu-xUT-UUP0,U,
1,-yx1UYx
B b
uTyxuTyUt1
0UTy-11t1y1\Ux1x1x]PUT1y11x1QTU1TU
UxuUy,y0y-\UPTQP
T,-T-ty1x,yUy
Ut1xU
0yTTUxQL1T01UT
]u]pU19
T]Uy]U
TQU]0yUUU01QTyU]tTU
1tUu0t1qT1UUT110y0UP1UTU1
tTU-p-xUPyxxQxyQx
yTyyUxyx1P
PPqTQTQ
]0-xUUPUTPTUTy,yUyPQTy1T1yU\1TUP1y0UQT1
U,yTy
xuUxUtPyTuxUx
yyTxUTTu
-Ty0u10t
xU1yTy1xQU0yx
-xUy,TUu0yUtxUx1u\y,y81u
xTt1tUtUxxtUxPy
xu,yUtUTUxTyx
TyP]T
yTy9uTU01Qx1yt0u,
UPUU81x]1y1
,UTyQx1uP]U
,y91,UTu\yt-xy0y1
Px-T-P
Ty]xUyx
QTyTQ
UtUy\u
1ty\QTU,Tx110x-
$Q0y]y1
]u0UUx1x1xy1U0x-TPyTUxy0yTU]UUT0U,U1U1x1x1x1
PyTux,ytUTT
1U\1t9yxUu
QUt0u-x
UUy]y
1t11xQxUt1y\u-yUy11u-T
UtTy1y,y1y
0y]UP
]tLy1x
]x-UU0Q
Ty]yU
j
y1y,x]xt1
Px1yPy1
1UTyxUxUtUx1QTy,x1yx1y0UUt
TPUyxyUxyUx
UT]y\M\yUx]xUTP1x0Q(U0u0
y01U01
TtTty-\QU0yUUxy1x
xUx1yTyx1TUUTy9P]-,(UT1LT]
UUTyTxyU
y,x1xPy
UQTy0y1PU1
x-x1PU
]yUU9
}1y]PTUU,u]
x1-x1UUTUU0y0]PUU0U-t1UTU
y,]Qxy
TuxUxt
TUxPUx
-xUt1UP
b B
01PUU1P1T
--x1x-xUUx-x1
y0y,yTUUTQQ
-yxTUQ
tPyTuP
PM\U-0y,t
1U9xUY1yUT9
PUTxPtUxQUTTyQx
-x1UTUtUU0yTTTy0u0PxU
HUy\yUTUy
UTU\1,U0Q0U
1y89UUU]
x,yTy-UTy1Ux-t9PT10y1xy]y0P
x-y0-y
ytUUTxyTxxty
Uxx1xUyx1
U1UUT,y\QL
1yU0]
1u0y1t0U0Q8UUT1y-Ty1xTUPUTUU0u01x1,UTyy0y0QU
yUxUxTytUxUuU
Ut1uTut0yTUPU,
1UUUTu]xUx1
f bf >
Q0Q1T0yyPx-tUPUxyPy,yUTQUTU0yTUyy\yu0yTxUx1
xyxTtxUx1PU\
a b
,yUtyTyTyTmT
y,y\y
1t1y,uUUUP]xTuTUx-U\y-xy
xUyxQ
tyx]x
,y8]TU-U,t
QUT1y1
yTUQ,]LU
\UUTT1x1y1x]yTUTTUt1xUUUT10Q0y0-10
UyxUtx1tUx
UyxUx
Uyy]U
UUPUPx0tU
0U0U-
-x1UT1-UT-x01QTTUTUU11P1PT
yyUt0u
T]L-x1y10H
-UP1xPU1x-xyTQx1xQyux-QTQ
0xxUTTy-x0xUyTyQ1
-x0UPx-,
](-1yy]y0
]0U-8UU
\ bb
-UU,-
-TUyxyUxUPUUUx1yUT]UUT]PQTUy1
,y]TUyQ]0QUT1P
]TUUT
Uyy1Y
1,L-T
tUTUTUx1PTUPTUT-0Q10
QLUyUx1xUQTxU-TUy1],x1
]UTQUT0yTU1t1tU
PUx9M0y1x1x1xy
yt1y1y,UUT1TUP
u9UPU
UPyy,tUx1xTU,
y]TUy
UQ,yPU1x,yy1tUxyQx
P1x-t1U1ty\y,xTUTu9yYUT
TyTyUxTUUx1P
MxyUxUtUTu\U
1xyx1yTyPy\t1xUUTy8yPy\y
9T-x10QP
]Q9]y
,yy9tTUxUTy8yUPUT-UUxUx-xUT-x1T-PT1TP
xUxUxPQUUxUT
-P101yU
y0y1ux9x
1y1UQT1P1yTUPUyu1xy-T
PxxTtUyx,
x-x1x1xUTUUtPy1y1xyQux1t1
1q]x1y
Ut01xQu\y
u0u]t0,M
1-]U]U
yy,yxQPyUt]x1xUyy,yx]tUyPUPy0yTy0
P]0y0
]y1yU
UQ8U-x
1yTyYy0Z
-,U1-
LT1y0]T1y0y1TUTU1MPU
-xU0Qx0UPU10,U10yQ
0x1xuUxy
,-U]q
y]y1x
-1x1y
,yP1TQ1UTTy-
1Q1T1QTU-P
LU1xy1xx1x
,x-UTU]tUtyx-xx1x9xUUTUT]yTQ]yx1
TtyUxuTyx
xPQLU0
Uy]UT
:j b>
QxyxUUTy0uTUTQ]tP
ux1xUTPUPy,
-0t]1yU
yy\U-U
Q8UTU
y\y,y]-TQ\QUT]Q0UUTUUPUTy0yPUTU1T1Ty,
UUUy]
0U1PUT
xQ]Tuy\Py0y1y11T
xUY,y0yUy1y0y
UTy]LU\]xxUx,yxUtUxQ
UTU1x
,P-xTUPy0uTyx
Q-0]1
x]Y1y
1xyT]
}TPUPQxUtQ
TQQT1x1y-UTyyyTUPy\yUP]TTyTQ11
]yUPUT1QTU01x10y0U,
0uTUPyxUU0yP]1PUQ0
U0],U0y,U0QxUTx-y0u
1Q1xUQ10x1Y]yPUyxQy9x
yy]y9
f;6c:
-tPyxQxUxuUU
QUUx1xUU
QUxUy
Ux1tU
a b
0yUT]P1TyxQUTtUxy0
TyuTy0yUx11x]U1T
,-T]y
(1y0UUTUU1t
,UP]-x
0y1xT1
tUxyU
1]1,9
U1x1,
1QTP1
u10y1U,
u0UU-
U1xy-t
HQ\tU
u0yTyt]yTQ
0Q1tPy
TQyTQQPTyUx
U-x1x1ty]u0UTTU\U\IUxUxyT1yTx
TUTU0y0UTU
QLUy,U]t
UT1yTUU
U,UTUT11U-x9ty
Uy1y-y0QUP1U
a$1xQ-T1QTyPp
-x1P1t1TPyyU0-ytPU,MU1TU
TQ1xUTx1x
QTUxU
Pxt)P1
bk >
U1y1x
uuTTUTQ
0xUx-TU1
yTyUT
UxPU-x
bP)T-T,1
-0,LtU
1tt]yTy0
-x1Ty0y1x
]Pt10t]xUy
10yUTy8yTU
1u0U01x1y,]1x1
-yTyy0y1UU
Q\Uy0UU11x9y
P-xtyx
Qy0uU-yx9UUyt]
tUT1y9y
1x11x9uU1yTU
}TU}0uTyTx1xUxUxyuTUUu0yx1x]QTy
1-QUPq,yU
U,-Uy
B b
QTy1tUUTQ0y0yTy-x9uxUyy-
1UUx]Qq1
yyPQTQ
,)T,T\
0-x1U1T1U,U1x1
-x1xy0yUU0
1UT]P
yUU1x0UPUT
Uy,9U-]1u-]Uu0yuUxyTuyTyQT
ttUyxP
1tTyP
Mx1UQu
xUt]Pp1xy
UxUu\y0y
1yTy1Tu
T990\
Ux1xQP
-0Q-0
1x1x1TU9tUUyQ\
5xy]y0UTQT
1PU\-xy811xy1
yTUtU
UUU0U1PM1x]UUPy11U0y-
11u0y1UUU1xyTU1y
1tQUTUuQ
,,1t]x
b bf>b
: b^>
UxQUTyTyyQy1y1y1TU
yTUUxu
]y]xyU,y
cb;b>>
: ;>fb
u1y,yU
Pu]yTt]UP
x1t]yTUyUyy
Ux9xU
xUxy]t
yTyTU
-1x]UTU1x1PU1yy0yUyUxyyU
0yT9t1t]L
: b
yTQUUQxU1y0UT,y1y1
Q1yYy1QT
1x10y1-
y0y]QxUUxQ\u1yy,]yTQ\UUUUyP
PyP]M
U]y]]
:? bf
yUytUYUtyU
11tUTyTuUx1uy]y,yTUUy0yy
y]t1T
>f b
1t11uy1yUP]11P1xy
-]Q]QUt91y1xUU1x
TxUP0
1y1yx]x
T0UTUU0yy1TU1yYy0y
]TU]UU0y
PtxQP$
UU-yy]
UU-x1
1yu]yPUyy1]Q1y0yT
UuYyPU
b_b b
UTy1yTyP
9TQ0yUxU
y1xUyTyxy0yU]Tt9y,
UxUyU
,t-xQ
b ^
yUTQUUU1
1y1UTy\yu1tyTyY1xUUU0y
y]yy]y
~ b b
-1U,a
u1x1u0yU
xy1x1
11y11T1
UQx1y0y0
UzTyT
u0tyP(
UyTUy0
UTy9q
TQyx1
UyxUyPy0u
t1xUUUy1TU
Mxu,LTU
Uy1y-xU,y-U]T
0yY]UUT
UTUTUTUU
TT1yYUyY0uxy0-]
f^:z> b
b b
xUyUyx
yyTyUtUU1y1
,xyu(yYyTQ
UTQyyx
,qTyTxUy1x
QyxyT
b b
UyTUUT
Uy1PU
QlLQ0-L
1y1y1UUy,
Ux1u0Q]UU
0yu\y
UxU-9
0,TUt
UTUyxUy
P)P,M
tUy]yUx
L-UP]
1y]^-yY
x1UUUU1yT
UUyQUTQ]UUU]
yUyyu
b
1xQ911Ty0yUT1yUU\
1UTUUT1yT
1ty0y
1yyUyU
:]b>
uTyPyyyUU]yU}x0yyT
UUt]yTUyUyyU
--t)T
U]]y]U
:?b >
b>
QyY1y1
0yU]u1Uy10y1t
xQUTu\1yUT10Uy1yu1U
fb:^>c
0U]t9
Qx]uYU
yxt1yU
1y]yU
0M,yTu$
1b?f b
>^: ::
}UxyUy1
UyTy\
UT]uTyU
b bf >
: >;
Uy9U]U
1PU1yYUQ\y9t
t0HPpPUPy]
-]Uy]
TU1yy
U1x1yxyyUTyUxy
TPPUP
: bf;
>b:^:b ^:
uUx]yTU
]yyy]xQyyTQ
y0yy0yu
1P]YyU
u]yxUyT
]xtUyUxUUU
-,P1P
tTuyT
T1y1y
0y0Uy
1tyTu1TUy1
-0P$1T
1x1y9]y]0y8uT
,-$0$
^b b^:
yUy1tUx
0yUyxu]yxyT
Qp]t]Q]y
(,1xy
9q]]UT1
--01P
Ux]U,
)8-0Q
y1y}\QUQ]y-
b b
PUU,U
Q,1P-110
11UTyUUUTUUx
Uy1yxTy1x1]TU
P1tUT
Cc?f >
T1-8-
TUUUxu1yyT
Ty1xyUTUx11y9y
y9U01
> ?>C
Qp-x10
,1T111P
M10P-
UTQyT
,M0yU
x9\y]UUU
,I,(y
0UU1P1]U-1U1-1
1101U,U,0-1U-
,01QP
--0U-,
YT1yUUyUUTUUyP
UU1y1yTy
\]u1y]
$PUTUx-x1T09P1P]-101-,1
Q,U,,
P01-,-
-U0ua
y1y0y
yUUUU\uy0y]x1TT
0yt9yy1
,,-$1-\
b B
Q-T1111]1
1,1U0
T1-1--0--
$uHPu-Yx
yxUy]UT
y0yxUUUxU
TPU,yx
UyYy0-y0UU
tTU,M0U-
Q--1,-
p0tQ,tQ(uPyQ
xUy]UT
yUyUy
]yyUyyxUYyU
$,$-,T1U0UUUT
1T1-1
Q1u0110-1M0-
,-8M-1U,Q
U,-T10QUP
P1--,
x-U,L
0-QU,
Q0TPPMt-y$uUQP
1yUy0y
UUy:x1]U
1y]yT
1YUxyT
y\U]y
1UTyx]yQ]TyU
$-$$u-,-
1T10U
y11t1-T
,U,9U,-y-0U0-0U-
Q11,Qy
P(UT-,U1
P-U-1-T-1P1U
PPUPu,qPUU5TUT9y
5U1U]01
1099x1
]yTUUy1
TUUUU
\y\Uy1
-y]UQ
1,1y,0
-09P1
t)T1T-,U011U
-0-10
P,-ty,q,M0u9x9q\y1
yUU\yy0U]y\
yTy]y
UU1y]1x9]
-x1U,-
-,-0Q0
1P)T-Lt1P-qPq1TyT
1x1y8]1x1\1
(tLHt
-aUUU\y1U
UPU-0-0Q0U10T
P0U0U
P0Q01
x1t1pQLPyQPQx1tU
PMT]y8
(t0Tll
yUTyy9-yUU0
Txy\yUx1yUT]x1y
L1-,U,)
)-1T-T1
T-U,1-T1
U11-,x
0U1T,U-T-U
x,T-1,11,P
-1,M,T--TQ1tUUPtQPq,P
U1Q\y
Qy0y1UT
UxQxy0
T01P0,M
T01P0
T-0,T
,U,qTx-
11U91U1y01
81U0U
yUyyTy9
-x,yy0Q)TUQMx1y1
1xU]10U0U10
QPTUQQT,u(1QPQ1t10y1x10yt]YU\]1
0]10]19
T0-1uLQ
x-]y\UU
P-TUHtPQQ(y1t1xQ
TU\UTyUTU0UU
Uy0yyTu
y\Uy1tU
-,1TP
-0,Q1,
-,qPt)xQQTUQy0y19x
U9]1U
0Q\yy0
]xQTyTyUyT
x-0t-
x-UQTQUU1TyU1U9U1
-1x9T1U9
TP(lPlP
]y-xy]x]
TUu]y
),$$$
-P,,MPqQQTUxU0yQ1-TU1TU0]1xU911U01
(TTPPl
YT1yTyT9u0
yQTUxU
1y1yUy
1,y-xUQyyUyy
1U101
T1U]UU
yU\Uy1y]TU8y0UU],
UTUUy
yyTyxU
-1tt]x
-,,L-tl
]UxUy
Ux]yt]qTyU
1uTU,,
1Q0yxUxy
yTu1x1-
P9QUPUy\y1T]
0UYUTy0y0
]TUx]
-y0yy
TYxUx1y\
UyUx1U
9tUTU
UyUT]
UTy]xUT1
UU}U\y1T
TyUx]yQ
1y1yP
0yPy]yxy
xUyUx]xu
x1x1UyUUUyy
1y0UT
1y]PU
]TUxUU
TyyUxUxy
yUxUyUx
Uy]xyU
}Ux9xUT]
Uy0yUy
y0yTy\
TUxyTUTUU
yTyy,
1y]xU
Ux1y]u
UU0y1y\UyUy
\yyxyUx]UU
UTUxU
yUxyU
]uTyUy]yyUx
yUx1yxUyyU
yyY]qUx
0U]y9UU
lT9xUy
\zUx]uY]
y1]UTU
,yT]y
]UyUyPy\yxQ
UyUyxUt
0y]xu
]U1y9y
Ty]yT
UUx]xy1
]u9UTy
TyyTU
UyUU]yTy0y
xUyx]x]
,]UxU
tUPUP
yUxTyxUyUx
yTyx]x\uYyyYx9U
]y0y1\y0
0yTy1xy1
p324-1
The movie camera incorporates a number of mechanical components that allow a sequence of still pictures, or frames, to be shot on a strip of film - usually 24 frames per second. The claw alternately engages and disengages with the sprocket holes in the film, ensuring that the film advances at the correct speed and that the film remains stationary during exposure. Synchronized with the claw is a rotating shutter : the movement of the shutter is timed so that the light path to the film is blocked as the claw advances the film. While the exposure gate is blocked, the mirrored surface of the shutter reflects the image, via a prism, into the viewfinder.
The illusion of movement is created when each frame is projected for a fraction of a second onto a viewing screen. A projector works like a movie camera in reverse. A light source at the rear of the projector is channeled through a gate, projecting each frame through a lens and onto a screen. A claw moves the film through the gate, holding each frame stationary as it is projected, while a rotating shutter is timed to cut off the light source as the film is moving between frames.
Photography and Film (1 of 4)
At least as early as the 4th century BC, the ancient Greeks were familiar with the principle of the camera obscura - a darkened chamber in which an inverted image of the world outside is projected through a small opening onto a flat surface within. However, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that a process was developed by which an image could be made permanent. A camera is essentially a box that is light proof except where the optical component, the lens, projects an image onto a sheet of material inside the camera. This material, usually film, is coated with an emulsion whose chemical properties are changed by exposure to light, and which - after appropriate processing - can reproduce the image.
The emulsion is made of silver halide grains (often silver bromide or iodide), suspended in gelatin. After exposure to light and chemical processing (development), the grains become black metallic silver. When the unexposed silver halide in the parts wholly or partially untouched by light is dissolved away, the picture becomes permanent, or fixed. It is, however, a reversed, or negative, image, with the original light areas reproduced as dark areas, and vice versa. The conversion of the negative to a true, or positive, picture was at first a problem, until a negative/positive technique was evolved, which brought the bonus that an unlimited number of positive prints could be produced from a single negative.
* OPTICS
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* PHOTOGRAPHY AS ART
* CINEMA
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Photography and Film (page 1)
ftsTitle
2;::
x0((x
L((L(
L((L(
((L($
x((L(
p324-2
ftsTitleOverride
Photography and Film (page 2)
ftsTitle
A daguerrotype of a Victorian family in 1845.
Photography and Film (2 of 4)
The early pioneers
In 1826 the Frenchman Nicuphore Niepce (1765-1833) produced the world's first photographic image. In 1839 Niepce's partner Louis Daguerre (1789-1851) marketed his daguerreotype, which used a copper plate coated with light-sensitive silver chloride, and required a half-hour exposure. There was no development in the modern sense, but by using mercury vapor to whiten the exposed silver and common salt to fix it, Daguerre produced a positive picture. In 1841 the Englishman William Fox Talbot (1800-77) patented his negative/positive process (the calotype process). The paper negative was placed face-to-face against another, unexposed, piece of sensitized paper, and then light was passed through the back of the negative. The sensitive paper, when developed, became a positive print.
Later developments
The growth of photography as a profession was greatly assisted by the introduction of a wet-plate process in 1851. A jelly-like solution called collodion was poured onto a glass plate, which was then dipped in silver nitrate solution. The plate was then exposed in the camera and developed before it dried. Portrait and landscape pictures could now be made to order, and intrepid photographers set off on expeditions laden with darkroom tent, glass plates, and chemicals.
The invention of a dry-plate process in the 1870s led to the commercial manufacture of glass plates in which dry gelatin replaced wet collodion. The emulsion was also very much more sensitive. Using a spring-operated shutter, exposure times could therefore be reduced to 1-25 second, thus making a tripod unnecessary.
In 1888 the American George Eastman (1854-1932) produced his first Kodak camera with the slogan 'You press the button, we do the rest.' It was in the well-tried form of a box, but instead of plates used a roll of sensitive paper (later nitrocellulose, or 'film'), which could be wound on between exposures. It took 100 shots, after which the camera was sent back to the manufacturer for development and replacement of the film.
In the 1920s the Leica camera was introduced - the first commercially successful 'miniature' camera able to use 35 mm cinema film. This and subsequent miniature cameras became extremely popular with professionals as well as amateurs. Even smaller cameras were later introduced for the mass market, but were not favored by professionals.
In the mid-20th century the Polaroid camera was invented by the American Edwin Land (1909-91), making 'instant' pictures by processing the film inside the camera itself. This was achieved by incorporating developing agents in the film, activated by bursting a pod containing alkaline solution as the exposed film was pressed between rollers.
* OPTICS
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* PHOTOGRAPHY AS ART
* CINEMA
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-11--Y1-
-11--
-,1-11
-1-11
11--1-1-
-1-1--
1-1--
1--11
-1-1-1-
--101
1-1-1-
-11-1-
-11U-b
1--1-
1-19-11
-1U1-U
1U11]
1-11-
1U1-1
U1--1
-1191
-1U-1
-11-1--
-1-1U1
11--1
1U1-11
11U11
-11-1-
11-1-
U1--1U
:Y-11U
1-11-
-1-1-11U11
11-1U1
U1U1-1
-U1U11-1-
-11-11-1
-11-1
-11-11-
-1-1--
-11-1-
1U1-1
11--1
-1U11
-11-11U
1-11U
11-11--
--1--1
11-19U
-91--
11-11-11
-11U1:
1--11-
-11-1
--1--1
-1--1
-1-1-U1
11U1-
-11-1-11
b1-11U
-1U1-
-11-11
-11-11-1
1-1U1
:11-1-11-
-1U9U
-1-11-
U1U11U
1,-1--
-11-11
1-11-
]1-1-
11U1-1
-1-01
-11--1-
1-11-11-
1-11-
1-1U1191
-1-11
-0-1-1
--11-
1-11U
-11--
-9-1U
-U1-1
1-11--11
1-11-11
-1U11
1--11-
-11-11
U1-1-11
1-1-1
-10-1--
--11U1-
1--11-
-1-11-
-11--
1-11-
-1-1-1
-1]11
--11-1
--1--11-
-1-1U1-
1-11-1-1
-11U-1-
U1-1-1
-11]1-1-1
1-11-
-1-1--11--
-11-1-1-1
-11-1
U1-U1
-11-11
-11-11-U1
1U11U1-
-11--1
1-1-1-1-1-
-11-11--
U11-1
11--1-11
1-11
-11--1-1-1
--11-
11U1-
-11U11
-1011-1
-1191--
-11-11
11-11-
1-1-1
:1U11-1
11-11U1
-119-
11-11
11-11-
-1-1U1U
11U11-1
-11U1
-1-11-
-1U1-11
1-1-1
-11-11
11--1
-11U1
-U11:
-1U1U
11U11-1-
1-1-1
1-1U11
-1U11
U-191-11
-11-1U-11U
-U11-11
11U11U
11U1-
-U11-
1-191191-
U-9U11-
:-11-
-1-1--11-1
U1-U1
-U1U1
-11-1
0-1--
11-1-1U1
1U119
:1U1--1
11-1-
-1-11-1-
-1-11
:1U1-
1-1U1
11-1U1
--11-U
-U11U1U1
5119U
-1-11
-1U- 1
1--11U1
-11U9
11U11
:11-1
-11-11
11U11]
-11--Y
-1U1U1
-1U11
119-1
-1-1-1
1-1-1-11-
1-11U1
11-1-
-1-11
1U19-
1-1U1
1-11U
:1:11U
1-1U11
11U11
11U11-
U11-1
-1-1-1U
11-11-1
11-11
-101-
-11U11
11U11
1-11
-91-1U11
1U911
U1-1-119
1--11-
11-11-
U1U11U1-11
-11-1
--11-
11-11-11
-11-1-
1-1-9
U1U11U11
-U11U
11-11
-1-11
-U11U
-1-11
--1-1-1
11U11
U1-1U1-
-11-1]
U11U1U1-
11-11
11-11-
1-U11U
-11-1
U11U1
11U11-
1-1-1-1
Z1U1-11
--11U1
-11-1-11
1-1U1Z
1Z1U11
-11-1
-1-11-1-
-11-11-11-
-U191
-11-11-
1-1-11-
bU11U1
19-1-19
:U11-
1--1-1-
1-11-1
11--1-
-1-11U
--11-1-
11U11
11-1U
11U911
-^U1--11
-1UbU
1UZU11
-1-1-
--1-11-1U-
-11U11
11U1-11-
U1-11
119U1
1-11
-11-1-
--1Y11--1
9U11U
-11U1
11-1U
1-1U1
1U11-
-1-11
-1U1U
11U11Z--
1-,11
-11U11
-11U11
1-11U11
11-11
91-1U1
11-11
-11-11-
1U119-9
:U9ZU
1U1]1
11U-1
1U11U1
U11-11
1-11-
U11-1
U1^11Z1
1U1-11U
U911U1
1U1Z^
^11-1U
1-1U1911U1
1:-11-1-
-1-11-11
-1-1U1-11-
--11-
-1-1-
:Y11U1
1-U11U1
1-11-1
1-1U11
1U11-1
19U1-
11U11
1^:11
-11-1U
-1-1-
-1-11-
11-1U
^11U9
11U11
11-1^
11U1
1-11--
^11U1
1U1-1
-11-1
U1-1U
1-1-1
-U11U11
-01--
-11]1
1-9U1
:U1-1
11--1U1
:11U91
1-1-1U1
-119U11-11
1U11-1Y11U
-1191
--11U
11U1-1]
1--0U1U11
-1-11
5U11-1-1
11-11
U11U1
-11-1-
-11-1-1U1U
1-1-1
-1-11-
-11--
11-1-
-1U11
:11-1
:U1-119
-1-191
1-011U11-1
^-11U1
:U1-11
11-1]1
-11U-
U-11U11
1-1-1
-11-1
-01--
]-1-U1
-1-1-1U1
11-1-1
-11-1-1
-11U1
1U19U
-911-1
1]1U1-
-U11^
91-11-1
11U11
11-1]
1-11U
1U1U1
11-1U
9U11-1-
-11-1U11-
-1-11
-11-1-
11Z 1
11U11U1-1
-1-11
-11U1U
:1U1U
:U1U1
11-1-1
1^^11
-11-11-
U11U1
^:U11
-11U1
-11-1-
9U11-
1-1--
1U11U9
11U11-
1U11-11-1U
51-11
1U1-1
119-1
11-1U
U11U1-11
--11-
1U119
11U1--
511U1
-11U1
:U9ZU1
1U-11
U-1-1-
1U-1Ub1-
1U1-
U1-11-9
11b1-1
--1--
-11-11-1
-11-11-
1U1U1
2]11
11U11U1
-11--11U
119U1
-11-1
-011-
11-1U1--1U
-1U11
1-1U1
Z1U11
19-1U
-11]-
-1-11
1-1U1-
11U11U1
1U11U
1-11U
-1-11-11
1-911
-11-11
9U11-
1-1-11
-11-1
1-1-U1U
-U11-1
1-1-11
11-1-
1-1-b
U11-1U
-11-
11-11
--1-1-
11-11
1U1U11-1
-11U1U
-1-91
11U11
U11-11-9U1
U11-1
1-11U11
11-1-
11U1-
U1U1U
9U11-1U1
Y-11U
1-1-191
-11--11
:1-1-
11U11
-1U11
11-1U
-11]1
1-11Y
:11U1-
11-U1
1U911U1
11-11
1-11U
11U11U11
1-1U1
1-1-1U
-1U1-11U
U-101-11U
11U11-1
U11-1-U
1U191
-1-1U1
-1-1U
-1-9U
-U1-11
1--191U
1-11U1-1
1U11-
1U1-11U
1-1-1
011-1
11U1-
1-11U
1-119
191-1
-11-1U
-11-11
U191-
-1U1U1-1
11-11
1911-
1U1U11
11-11-1-
-11-11-11U
0--1U1
-1511
1-1U1-1U
-11-11
U1-11
-11--
^1U11
-11--
-1U11-
19U11
-U1-1
U1Z11]1
U1U11
11U119
11U11
11--11
-11-11
1-11-
11-1-1
-11-1
-11-11
-11]11
1-1U1-
-19--
11]1:
-1-11-
11U1--
1-11U
-1U1-1-011
11-1U
U11-1
11Z f
-1-1U119Z
11-1U
11-110-1-
9U1-1U1
-1-11
11-11-
-1-11U
1U119
-1--0--
U1-1]
11-U1
--11-1
11-11-11U
U1U11
1-11-11
11U1-
-11-1-1
11-1-
-11U1U
1U1-U
-1-11-
--0-1
1-19U1
U91U1-
:-11-
1--Y1
-11U11-
:]1U1
1-11U1U
:-1-1
-11-11-
1-11-11
1U11-1-11
U11U11U
011-1
1-1-11
-1-011
1-1-1]-
11-11
-11--11-1-
-1U11-
T11-1
11U1-
1U1--1
1--01
-1U1-
--11-
-1-11
1U119-
-11-11-1
1--0-1U
1-1-1-
-1--1-
-1-1--
11-1-
-1U1-
11-10
-1-1-1
-1-1-1
-1:1-1-1
11-1
11-1U
-1-1-1-Y-1
--1-1
11U1U11U1
11-11]
1-11U1-1U
1U1-9
:1U1-11-
11U11-1
1-11-
U11U9-1
11T11-
1--11-
11-U11U11
-11U1
U11U11U-
-01-11
1T1-1
U11U1-11T
1-11-
-1-1-1
11-1-
1-11-
--11-1U
-1]1-
1-1-11-
1U1U1-
1-1-1
1-1--
1-1-1
-1-1-1-
-1-1-1-1-1
U11-01
--11-
1-11-
11-1U-
U1U1U9
1-1-1
T11-1
11-1-
-1-1-
Y-1-1-1--
U11U1-
11]11
11U1]
-1-11-1-
U11-1-11U
-11U
-1U11
1-11T1-
-U1U1
1--011--0
1U1-11
11--b
-11-1
11-11-
-11U1
U1-1-
-10-1-
1U1-11
-11-11
-11U1]-
1--1-
11-11-
]1-1-
--1-11-11U
Y11U1-
1-191
U11U1
11-U11
-11U1-
-1-1U1
U11-1-
1-U1-
--11-11
1U11-9
-1-1-
--1-1
1-1-1
0-11-1-1-
U11]11
--1U11
-1-1-
1-11-1
-1-11--
11-11-
1-1-1
11-110-
1U1-1
-1U11U11
11-1-
11U1-
-101-1
1-1-1
U11U1
1--1-
11-11-
11--11-1
U11U1T
U91--0-1-1
U-1U1-
-11-1-
1U11U1
1-01-1-1--
-1--1-1-
1-11-11-
-1U1-
U11,1
1U1U-1
:1-1--
U11U1
-1-1-1
1--11-
911-11
11-11
-0-1-
11-11
-11-11
-11--1-
:-1-1-1-
,1-1-1-
-1-0-
-11U11
1--11-
-1-11-
-1-1-
T11-11
119-11-
11-0-
-1--1
-11-11-
--,-1--
-1-19
0-01-1-
-11-10-1-
11-1-
1-1-11-1
-11U1
--0-1
1-1-1--
-1-1-1
,11011-0
-1U11U1
--0--
1--011-1-
1-1-11
11-11-
11-11-1
U11-11
1011-1
1-11U1U1
-1--1-11-
--1-1-11
1-1-1-1-
-1-11-1-1
1-1-1
1-1-11U
1-11U11
1-11-
Y-11-1-11
--11--
101-1
11-11
1-1-1
1-1--1-
--1--
911U11-1
-11-1-0--
--11-1
11-1-1
1U1191
1-0-1-
-11U1
--1-1
1--Y-
:11U91-
11-11-U
-11--1
-11U11-
-11-1--
-1-1-1
1-11-1U1
U91-11
--11-1-
1-1-11U
-11U11
1U1U1
,1-11-
1-1-1U-
U1-1U
--1--1
-1--0-
1-11U^
1T11-
11U-1011
-1-1-0
:-11-
11-11
Y1-11U
1-1--1
11-1-
U1-11
-1--11
11-1-0-
1-11-
-11-1--1
T11U11U
U1U1-
1-1-1
-11-1
-01-11
-1]1-
9UU11
1-11U
-1U1U1
-1-1--
11]-1
-11-1
U-11-1--
1-11-
-11-1-1
:-10-
-01-11
1U11U1
-11--
11-1-
--011-11
-11-U11U
-1--1
:-1-11-
11-1--
1-1U:
-1-11
U1-1-
-1-1-1-
U1U1U
-1-01
-1-1-
-1-11
-11-1
-11Y11
11U1-
-11-1
1-1-1
1U911
11-11
:-U-011
11-11
-1--1
-1U11-1-1-
--11Y1-
1-11-
-11-11-11-
--0--
-1-11-
-1-1-
-11-1-
-11-1
11-11
,-1-1
11-11
1-1-11
--11-
-1-1-1
1011-1-
1-1-1U1U
:11--
11-19Z
-11-1
U1011-
--11-
-11-1
11-1-
11--1
1-11-1-
Z1-1U
1U11-11-
11U1U11-
-1-1-
1]1-
-9U11
-1-11U
-a11-11
11U1-11-1-
1-1--1-
-1--91
1--11-11-1
-1]-1-11-
-1-91
--11-
--0-1
1U11-
-U1U1U1
-11--
-1-11
p324-3
ftsTitleOverride
Photography and Film (page 3)
ftsTitle
In a single-lens reflex (SLR) camera, a single lens is used both for viewing and for taking the picture. A hinged mirror set at 45 degrees directs the image projected through the lens onto a ground-glass focusing screen above the mirror. The laterally reversed image on the screen is then reflected off the sides of a pentaprism (five-sided prism), so that the image is then focused on the screen, and the iris diaphragm is set to contract automatically to the correct aperture as the picture is taken. As the shutter-release button is pressed, the mirror swings up and the shutter opens, thus allowing the image to strike the film.
Focal-plane shutter, located between mirror and film. As the shutter is released, the first blind, normally covering the film, moves across to expose the film. The second blind follows rapidly behind, to cover the film again.
Iris diaphragm, adjusted to control the amount of light admitted through the lens. The diaphragm consists of a set of overlapping hinged blades that move in such a way as to increase the opening, or aperture, at the center of the diaphragm.
Photography and Film (3 of 4)
Modern cameras
Unlike more traditional 35 mm cameras, which have a simple see-through view-finder, the 35 mm single-lens reflex camera allows the user to see the exact picture being taken. Larger cameras may also use the reflex viewfinder. In the case of the twin-lens reflex, the mirror is fixed and has its own lens, of the same characteristics as the taking lens. Although the 35 mm film size is the most popular, larger formats, using sheet film or roll film, are still used where convenience of use is less important than final picture quality.
More sophisticated 35 mm cameras have their own exposure meters, which measure the amount of light falling on the subject and adjust the shutter speed and lens aperture accordingly. They may also incorporate electronic controls and automatic focusing: the user is required only to frame the picture and press the trigger.
Film and color photography
Emulsions have improved continuously. An early step was the introduction of panchromatic film, which was sensitive to red and therefore gave a better tonal rendering. Subsequent films of still greater sensitivity enabled pictures to be taken in poor light, but tended to be less sharp because the silver grains were larger - although this problem was itself solved by the later introduction of sensitive fine-grain films.
Cumbersome ways of making color pictures were evolved in the late 19th century, but it was the appearance of Kodachrome and Agfacolor in the 1930s that introduced modern color films. These were multi-layer films in which three separate emulsions recorded the blue, green and red parts of the image. They were then processed by dyeing each layer with the corresponding complementary color (yellow, magenta and cyan), thus producing three positive images one above the other, which together reproduced the original colors of the image. The final picture was a transparency, to be looked through or projected, but a negative/positive system was soon introduced to produce color prints.
* OPTICS
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* PHOTOGRAPHY AS ART
* CINEMA
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Camera, single-lens reflex (SLR)UVUU
-1--1--1-
x1xx(
xUxUyTUyT
yTyTxTxUxU
xTyTxTxTyT
xTyTyTy
-1-1U
xyyU0yyxyx
yyxyxy
xyyxy
)01()
xxyxy
yxyxy
x)0)0(0)0(
1(0)0(x1xy
yxyxT1(1
yU(0xyxyx1
Uxx1(
0)0(0)00(1
1--1-
-1--1
--1U1
1;2;:
;:;2:
p324-4
ftsTitleOverride
Photography and Film (page 4)
ftsTitle
Faster than the human eye: a bullet traveling at 450 m (1476 ft) per second is captured as it passes through an egg.
High-speed photography generally uses shutter speeds of less than 1/1000 second, and has many applications in science and technology.
Photography and Film (4 of 4)
Applied photography
Photomicrography produces enlarged pictures of tiny objects, and is achieved either by using a short-focus lens on a long-bodied camera, or by taking photographs through a microscope. It has applications in biology and criminology, among other fields.
High-speed photography shows successive phases of movement too fast to be observed by the human eye. Apart from the use of high-speed shutters, a technique known as stroboscopy may be used, in which cameras with open shutters register successive images of a moving object illuminated by intermittent flashes. Such techniques can be used for studying phenomena as disparate as a dancer's movements, explosions, or fracturing metal.
Photography has numerous other specialized applications that have widened the possibilities of many activities and revolutionized others. Using lens filters and special film, for instance, it is possible to select parts of the electromagnetic spectrum other than visible light as the illuminant. X-ray and infrared photography are among the important applications of this technique.
John Logie Baird at a rehearsal for a television program in 1943.
Radio, Television and Video (1 of 4)
The use of electromagnetic waves to carry sound and pictures has revolutionized communications in the 20th century. News, entertainment, sport and education have all been transformed by radio and television. Television has become the single most significant leisure-time activity in developed countries.
The media used to carry information are radio waves, which lie at the low-frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves occur naturally in space, emitted by stars and galaxies, but for broadcasting purposes, they are generated by accelerating electrons inside an aerial (or antenna) - a device used both to emit and receive radio waves. Like all electromagnetic waves, radio waves travel at the speed of light - 300 000 km (186 000 mi) per second in a vacuum.
Long, medium and short radio waves, with wavelengths between 2 km and 10 m (1 1/4 mi and 33 ft), can diffract or 'bend' around obstacles such as hills and are therefore suitable for local radio broadcasting. They are reflected both by the Earth and by the ionosphere (a layer in the atmosphere), and thus can 'bounce' between the two and be transmitted over very long distances. Short waves are reflected best, and are generally used for international broadcasting. VHS (very high frequency) and UHF (ultra-high frequency) waves have shorter wavelengths. They can only travel in a straight-line path, and pass through the ionosphere. They are chiefly used for television and local radio.
Radio
The simplest form of radio transmission is to use a radio transmitter (or, strictly speaking, an emitter) to create a radio wave of a fixed frequency, and a receiver tuned to that frequency to pick it up. By turning the wave on and off, a series of dots and dashes can be transmitted, sending a message in Morse code. In 1894 the Italian Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1919) put together the discoveries of others to create radio. In the attic of his parents' house near Bologna he made a bell ring by sending a radio message across the room. By 1901 he had transmitted the letter S in Morse code across the Atlantic from Cornwall in England to Newfoundland in Canada.
A more sophisticated system is needed to transmit voices and music. A carrier wave, instead of being turned on and off like a tap, must have a second signal imposed on it. This is the process known as modulation. One possibility is amplitude modulation (AM), where the amplitude of the wave is varied; a second is frequency modulation (FM), where the frequency of the wave is varied. A microphone produces a small electrical current representing the sounds made into it. The wave profile corresponding to this current is then superimposed on the carrier wave, broadcast, and finally separated out again at the other end by the radio receiver. An amplifier increases the power of the signal, so that it can operate a loudspeaker, recreating the original sounds made into the microphone.
Light reflected from the scene being televised is focused by lenses and split by means of dichroic (color-separating) mirrors into three separate images, one in each of the three primary colors - blue, green and red. Each beam of colored light is then directed into one of three identical vidicon tubes. The pattern of light falling on a photo conductive layer within each tube causes a varying pattern of electrical resistance; as a electron beam scans the photo conductive area from behind, a varying electric current is induced in a circuit connected to the conductive layer. The pattern of dark and light in each primary-color image is thus converted into one of three varying electrical signals.
A black-and-white luminance (brightness signal is created in the adding unit, by combining information from each of the three color signals. At the same time, the color encoder produces a single chrominance signal, which defines the hue and saturation of each primary color. The luminance and chrominance signals are combined into a composite video signal. Prior to transmission, the audio signal is incorporated, together with a synchronizing pulse ('sync pulse'), which ensures that the electron scanning in the receiving system matches that of the transmitting system.
Radio, Television and Video (2 of 4)
Television
The idea of using radio waves to carry visual information dates back to the early days of radio, but became practical only in 1926. The basic principle is to break up the image into a series of dots, which are then transmitted and displayed on a screen so rapidly that the human eye perceives them as a complete picture.
In 1926 the Scottish inventor John Logie Baird (1888-1946) demonstrated television based on a mechanical method of scanning an image into lines of dots of light. Baird's system had little future, however, and was rapidly superseded by an all-electronic system. This was developed by Vladimir Zworykin (1889-1982), a Russian-born engineer working in the USA. His first practical camera, made in 1931, focused the picture onto a mosaic of photoelectric cells. The voltage induced in each cell was a measure of the light intensity at that point, and could be transmitted as a signal. A modern TV camera operates in essentially the same way, measuring the light intensity at each point of the image. This information is then encoded on the radio wave and transmitted.
At the receiving end, the signal has to be decoded. A TV set is basically a cathode-ray tube, in which a 'gun' fires a beam of electrons at a luminescent screen. As they strike it, the screen lights up. To make up the whole picture the beam is scanned to and fro in a series of lines (625 in modern sets), covering the entire screen in 1/25 second.
* WAVE THEORY
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* CINEMA
* JOURNALISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Outline
ftsTitleOverride
Radio, Television and Video (page 2)
ftsTitle
p326-3
The composite signal picked up by the receiving aerial is decoded, separating out the various constituent signals. The luminance signal controls the overall output of three electron guns in the cathode-ray tube of the receiving set, so determining the balance of light and shade in the final picture. The chrominance signal - now split into the three primary-color signals - regulates the relative strength of each electron beam. The syn pulse, divided into line and frame components, controls the deflection of the beams across and down the screen.
The television screen is coated with stripes of different phosphors, which glow red, blue or green when struck by electrons. Immediately behind the screen is a grille, or shadow mask, which contains many perforations. Traveling at slightly different angles as they pass through the perforations, the electron beams are caused to diverge before striking the screen, in such a way that the electrons from each gun can only reach phosphor stripes of the appropriate color. Each image on the screen thus consists of stripes of varying brightness and color that merge together to form the complete picture.
Radio, Television and Video (3 of 4)
Satellite and cable TV
Because the VHF and UHF wavebands on which television signals are transmitted are not significantly reflected by the ionosphere, many transmitters are needed for complete coverage of all but the smallest countries. For intercontinental TV, some other way of bouncing the signal back from space is needed. This is achieved by satellites above the Earth that pick up the signals and broadcast them back to Earth. The satellite signals are not powerful enough to be picked up by ordinary TV aerials, so they are re-broadcast by ground transmitters. Special dish-shaped aerials can pick up satellite signals, however, making possible continent-wide direct broadcasting by satellite (DBS). Such satellite channels already operate in the USA and Europe.
TV signals can also be fed down cables, making possible networks in which films, news, sport and other programs are available exclusively to those willing to pay a subscription.
* WAVE THEORY
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* CINEMA
* JOURNALISM
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Outline
ftsTitleOverride
Radio, Television and Video (page 3)
ftsTitle
b>\>b>
b8b>\>
b8b>\>b>\>
b>\>b>\>
\>b8b>b>\>
b8b>b8b>
b>b8b>\>\>
b8b8b8
b>b8b8b>
\>\>b>\>b>
b8b>b>b8b
>\>\>b>b8
b>b>\>\>b8
b8b>b8b8b>
b>b>\>\>
b>\>\>b>b8
b>b8b8b>b>
b8b8b>b>
\>\>b>b8b8
b>\>b>b8b8
b>\>\
\>\>b8b8b8
b>\>\>b>\
b8b>\>\>b8
b8b>\>\>\>
b>b>b8
b>\>b>b8b8
b>b>\>\>\>
b>b8b>b>
b>b>b>>\>>
b>b8b>b>\>
>b8bb>b
>\>b>\>b>b
>b8b>\
b8b>\>b>\>
b8b8b>b8b8
b>b>b>\>b8
b>\>\b
>\>b>
>b8b>\>b>\
>b>b8b>b>\
>b8b8b8b>\
>b>b8
>b>\>b8
>b8b>
>b8b>
\>b>\>\>b8
b8b8b>b>b>
\>b>\>\>b
b>\>b8
8b>\>b>b>\
>b>b>\>b8b
8b>\>b>b8b
>\>\>b
b>\>\>
>b8b>\>b8b
>b8b8b8b>b
>b8b>\>\>b
>\>b>
b>b>b
>\>b>b>\
>b8b>\>b>\
>b>b>\>b8b
>b8b>b>\>
b8b8b>\>\
>\>\>\>\>\
>\>\>\>\>\
b8b8b8b8b
b>b8b8b>
>\>b>\>\>\
>b8b8b>\>\
b>b>b>b>b>
b>b>b>b>b>
>b>b>b
>b>b>b
>\>\>b>b8b
>\>b>\>b>b
>\>b>b>\>b
>b8b%
b>b8b8b>\
>\>b8b
b>b8b>b8b8
b>b8b8b>\>
>\>b>b8b>
b>\>b
>\>b>\>b>\
>\>b>b8b>b
b>\>\>b8b
>\>b8b>\>b
8b>\>\>b8b
>b>\>\>b>\
>\>b>\>b>
\>b8b>\>b8
b8b>b>b8b8
b8b>b>\>\>
b>b8b>\>\
>\>b>\>\>b
>b>\>\>b>b
>b8b>\>b>b
>\>b8b>b>
b>b8b>b>b8
b8b>b>\>b8
b8b8b>\>\>
b>\>b>\>b
8b8b8b>\>b
>b8b>\>\>b
>b>b8b>b>\
>\>\>\>b8
b>b>b8b>\>
\>b8b>b>\>
\>\>b>\>\>
b8b>b>
b8b>b>\>b8
b>b8b>b>\>
b>\>b>\>b>
b>\>b
b>b>b8b>
b8b8b>\>b>
b8b>\>b8b>
b>b8b8b>b>
>b>\>\
>b>\>\>\>b
8b8b>b8
b8b8b8b>\>
\>b8b8
>b8b8b>\>
b>b8b>\>\>
b8b>b8b>b8
b8b>b>\>\>
b8b8b>b>
\>b>>b>\>b
>b8b8b
b>b>b8b>b>
\>b>b>
b8b>b>\>\
>\>b8b>b>\
>b8b8b>b8b
>b>\>\>
>b8b8b
>b>b8b>\>\
>b8b>b>\>\
>b8b8b>b>
>b>\>b8
>b>\>
b8b>b
>\>\>b8b>b
>\>b8b8b>b
>b8b>b>\>\
\>\>b>\>b8
b8b>\>b>b8
b>\>b>\>\>
>b8b>\
8b>b>\>b8b
>b>\>b>\>\
>\>b8b8b>b
>b8b8b>
>b>\>\>\>
b>\>\>\>\>
b>b>\>b>b>
\>b>\
b8b8b8b8b8
b8b8b8b8b8
b8b8b8b8b8
b8b8b
>b8b>b>b
b8b>b>b
8b8b>b>b8b
>b8b8b>\>\
>b8b8b
>b>b>b>b>b
>b>b>b>b>b
>b>b>b>b>b
>b>b>
b>\>\>b8b
>b>\>\>b>b
8b8b>b>\>b
>\>b>b8b>b
?@??@?9@?
?@??:??@??
:??@??:??:
>\>b>\>b
b8b>b>\>\>
b>\>b8b>\>
b>\>\>\>\>
@?9@??@?9
@??@??:??@
??:??@??@?
b>b8b>
>b8b8b
>b>\>b8b>\
>b8b8b>b>b
??@?9@??@
??:??@??:?
?@??:??:??
>b>b8b8b
8b>\>b>\>b
>b8b8>
?@9?@?9@?
9@??:??@??
@9?@??@??:
b8b>b>b
8b>b8b>b8b
@??@??@??
@??@??@9?@
??@??:??@?
>b>\>\>
\>\>\>\>b>
??@??:??@
??:??@??@?
9@?9@??:??
>b>b>b>
b>b>b
?:??@??:?
?@??:??@??
@??@??@??@
@??:??@??
:??@??@9?@
?9@??:??@?
??@??:??@
??:??:??@9
?@?9@??:??
?:??@??@9
?@??@??@??
@??@??@??:
@??@9?@??
@??:??@9?@
?9@??:??@?
??@??@?9@
?9@??:??@9
?@?9@??:??
?@9?@??@?
?@??@??@??
@??@??@??@
@??@9?@?9
@??:??@9?@
?9@??:??@?
??:??@9?@
?9@??:??@9
?@?9@??:??
?@??@??@?
?@??@??@??
@??@??@??:
@?9@?9@?9
@?9@?9@?9@
?9@?9@?9@?
??@??@??@
??@??@??@?
?@??@??@??
?@??@??@?
?@??@??@??
@??@??@??@
+##++
++##+
+##++
p326-4
ftsTitleOverride
Radio, Television and Video (page 4)
ftsTitle
A high-definition television system being demonstrated by a scientist. Various companies are developing this type of advanced TV, which displays an image composed of 2000 lines. This gives a resolution 32 times better than that of the usual 'studio quality' systems.
Radio, Television and Video (4 of 4)
Videotext
TV sets can also be used to display written information, in the form of videotext. The written information is transmitted as part of the signal, and decoded by the TV receiver. Each page of information takes about one quarter of a second to transmit. The system runs through a magazine of about 150 pages, taking 30 seconds to complete the cycle before starting again. The user can stop the cycle at any page by keying the number of that page on a keypad. A limit is effectively put on the size of such systems - of which British Ceefax and Oracle are examples - by the fact that if more than 150 pages were transmitted, delays in displaying would be unacceptably long. There is no such limit on the amount of material that can be provided on interactive systems, in which the signal is not broadcast but carried on telephone lines. In these systems, the TV screen is used to display information held in a central computer and accessed by dialing into it over an ordinary telephone line.
Video recorders
TV programs can also be recorded on magnetic tape. The principle is the same as that of an audio tape recorder, but the technology is more complex. The signals are recorded as magnetic patterns on the tape, but because a video signal contains much more information than an audio one, it is necessary to pack it more efficiently onto the tape. Early experimental video tape recorders (VTRs) used fixed recording heads and fast running tape, but needed 32 km (20 mi) of tape to record one hour's TV. The answer was to use a recording head that rotated as the tape ran past it, so that the information was effectively laid out diagonally across the tape, reducing the length of tape needed. This is the principle used by all today's VTRs.
* WAVE THEORY
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* CINEMA
* JOURNALISM
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
yxxUx
,x,T,
x0x-L
,tU,U,L,
> >gf
tLttpP
tTyxU
0U1010
PtLtL
1-11U
t0tUt
PtpPpPpP
pPtp,t
T10-1
QuVz^
1T1U0U1
01T1P1
-xPT-
aa80TT^
,LPptL
UtyUx
-0-0T
t-PTUPU,T
PL,HPHtLtL
tptHtH
,tlP,
,Ll,ltP
U10-0
010T10T
,TUT,L1P(
LtPpP
tLtlPt
,p,pH
TUTQTy
1T1-0
y11U0
t0u0t0,1
p,uLtt
ttLtLt
,ltLtt
x1tTu
Py,x1U
$,(lt
,t(ttL
P$,$t,
LPPLuL
tpPltltpH
$-pPt
1t1t1
1xUUy
U-0-1
tTu0t0t-0
,pPtLtP
tLttL
,p,t,p
Pl,ltpPtPl
PPp,p
t-xUU,UT*
PLPtL
,L,)PHP
(PPpl,
,xx,t0-P
,PLttLttL
,$,$P(PH,
HPtptLl,lt
PHtLtPP
HPpl,
PUyTQ
0uTU0P0
,$,P$,H-
t(lPHPLl
tLltLt
P(tl,
PUPTQ
LtLtPp
PL,u.V
P,(Q,
tLtHP
PpPttL
PPplt
TP1xPy
xtUxy
xu0T1t1
tLttL
L$,L,-p,tL
tLtl,
tpPtLl
TyTyy
PLtPp
LP-pPp
,$,L,
PH,LPPLHPp
L,lPl
,yUUP
u0yxU
,xU0u0
L,HHPLt
t(tLPp$
P(l(tL
$,pPpP
tplPpm
PytxQT
P$H-p,t
tLtLPH
y-yUtU
tLttL
-(P(,P(t,l
,ptPp,l,tp
P)t,PLtUt
0UP0-1
,(P$,pt
LPlPlPP
PLlPl,t
)x-xQ
u0yyU
Pp-tp
)P0t(x
0tx,txtTPL
,P(P,
H,(tPlPL
tptPt
$,l,lPt
$Pl,pPpHPp
Tt0u0
PPHtP
0tTxtT
TtTxT
t(PLPHtLtH
Pltpl
PptHPLtltt
-xyUy
QptLyt
Pxt1P
PHPtp
,lPpHPH
(PtlPl,
$,tLtt
HPP(PPp
pHPptptlt(
LPpHP
PLtP(PQ(t,
LtLPpt
p,pPP)
,ltLtLl
pPplPp,l
,tMtPLu,qt
-TuxQptT
,HPLt
$,pt(lP
P(tPp
tlPp,t
,p,t(tPLtp
,L,q,u
pHPltlP$
tLtPt
TuxyU
-1yQ11
P(,p,tMP
MtLuxt
,$P,$u
p,(t,LPHP
tpPtLP$,P(
t(t,Lt,p
,q,tL,tLtL
ttLtpP
L,,p,PHPLH
-,pHPplt,)
t(tHPPLPL
tpHPpt(tH
0P(ty
p-p,P)t-p,
tLtPqtPtp,
yPt,tMtPt
p-t(t$t
t$PtlPLHtH
PpPplPpPPl
P-TyU
,pttLt,ptt
(t,ptUtp-p
,puLttpP
L,P-H
,p,t(t(t,p
t(t,p,
p,LPLPt
(P,LPtp,t
Lt,pPtLttL
PPLPPLP
tLtPpPLtPx
P,pPptt
H,p,lt
,ltPL
,pPPpPt(
pPtLP,LPP(
t-LQPLPuLt
t)P-xQp,
H,L,,H
,p,tLPL
$,p,Ht(lt
LH,l,lPLP,
(PLlPpPlP
t(PLt,p,t
(Pt(t,L,tL
,t(tP(P,pP
PL,P(PP
,$,L,L
,,L,t,p
HlPlPL,t(t
,L,lPLtP
ltLlPLP,
tltLtl
,pPu(P,p
(tP(t,pP
t(t-(,
t(PPL
LPLPpHtL
pPtlPpPl
tLltltLt
PLP(P,
(PPL,tLPPL
Ht(tt(PPLP
P(Q,L,,L,t
t-(-PpP,t
P,(t(t(t
tLtLP
p,ltL
PpPpt
tLPltltlt
tl$$P
P(,LPPLP,L
PP(PPLPP(,
t(,t(t
L,,M,P
,QLPTP(P
($,(P
PLtHPpPp,
PHtltLt
t),,L
PP(t,Lttp,
u(t,p
$P$,$,L$
PLPpHt
,LPtpPp,
tltltpP
,P(P,L
QP(P,(-P(,
,L,,(,P
L,Q(t,P
t,l,lPpPpH
PPLPL
LltLP
HPlPpltL
,P(P,
P,L,P
t,q,uLPL
p,l,pt
PLt,lP
,PLtLtpP
ltPplt
lltlt
,PLP,(Pt
$,p,p,p
P,l,p,lPL
Ll,lPP
tLtMtP
lPltPpPp
,ltLlPp
PpPlP
P-,LPP(P,
M,P(,PLP,
P(,PH,l
tHPp,
PPLHtpt
tltlt
,tLtPp,LPt
t(t,t(t
($,$,
H(,LP
LPPLHPLPHP
PLtptP
LtpltL
ltltPpltlP
ltLtt
,t(H,L,L,,
PPL,P
,pHPL,L
tltlPl
ptLltL
$,L,L,L,
(t(PL
Pl,tLPHP
upPpH,pt
tltlltLt
ltLlPltP
H,p,t(t(PL
PPLHPQLP
P(tPHtLtt
ltpPt
(ttltPp
0P0tLt
tPpt,(Q(,,
,$,$,
(,p,LP(P,
PltLtpPPlt
ltPpP
P(tLHt(t,
P(QH,HPH,L
tH,HPLP
P,pH,
lPQpPLltLl
tplPltL
PpltltL
t(,L,
(P(PLPP(
,p,,PLP
l,pH,p
(t(PqPPl,l
lPLlt
Pltlt
PltTt
PtpPt(t(P,
(,P,(,L,
H,$,L
(HPLPLHt,l
up,lP
$,LPm
lLtlPp,
,ltlt
t(t,t
,L,L,P,
(P,L,H,LP(
,lPL,p,p,
tt(t,pHt
L,p-P($
PH,,p,
LPL,,H
,P(P,L
PH,,p
LPLPPLl,
,tLllPplL
t(H,lPlPpt
,PLP,(
P)H,p
P,H,(t(t(l
tpHPL$
PLPPplt
,tH,P(P,p,
$-L$,,
PPL,LH,
l,L,P(,HtL
tpPtpPpP
tPTPpP
(PtLP,p,t
P($P$,,L$t
(t,p,p
$,,LP
tHtLt(
,P(t(t,
pPtpPtTtpP
pPP,L$
,L$t(l,t(
L$,(,P,
L,t,$
tH,P$
xPpPttPpt
,L,(,,L,H,
,L,L,P)P(H
PP(,l,t(
ltHtLtPH
($,u(,l
,tpPx
xPpxPyL
),L,P,$
$Q($,
($u,-L
,p,tpPLPtp
-txPp
$,(,L,P(
PPMPPLP,
L,P,$
,(P-P(P(H
P$PPL$P$P
Pl,lt($,
,,(HPLlPp
,pPtpPpPp
LtPtxP
PPLPP(t,p,
Q,T-Q
P(u($
Pl,tHP$
HP(PlP
P,pPptPptt
,$PPL,L,,
bB >
P$,LP
$P(H,
,L,Pl
tMtHt(
tLt,tLxPtL
LtpyPxtL
t,LP(
,$,L,H,$
p,P$P($
H,pPp-L
$P(P,p
(,L,LxPL
LtxTtTt
PLPptxP
L,$P($
H-p,p,$
Pp,l,$
PL,L,
P,qPPptPtL
PtPxPpt
$,,L,
,$t,l,H
L,(tPLtPpy
xPpTtLtLtT
tTtpPy
,HPL,$QP
$,LHP
PPptPLPtP
tPPpPLxt
tp,(tt(
P,(t(H
$,L,Ht
P$,Q(tLPP
pPPLytP
PptPp
,tPp0
,,qt-
PLP($
$,)t,H
(P(Pt(tt
LtxPp
UtMxt
LP,P(,
L$t(H
,(ttLt
tPxTt
tLxtP
P),($
P,L,PLt
tpTt(tp,p
PpttL
p,(P$
q,$,pP$
q,PLtPpPt
xtPpTtP
($P$,L,Ht,
L,P)P(
LxtLtP
p0t,pPqtPL
PtpPxtP
H,p,H-($,L
,PL,L
$P$P$
tPpPpPtLtt
,pt(t
,pPxt
,$,L,
,p$P,$,
P(,t$
,),,L
,,p,LPP
PtpTtPt
-xPLPL
(P$,,
P,L,t(t
Pp,pttLttL
ttpTPLtL
LPLPxPptT
$P($P
LPQLt,t
tLtPpP
tP(t(t,
x,tpPtpt
(P,MPp,
ptpPptLt
,p,t0M,t,
t(t,pPxPxP
,tpPttLtPt
Lt(t0tL
t,PMPLPPLt
(tpPptT
P,p,t,pT
tPpxtPptP
LPp,LP(,(t
-p,t-pPtUP
pPptPP
ytTtpPL,,T
-P(P,p
PtLtPpxt
,(U,,tLP
xPptP
pPPMPP)t,p
u(t,tpt,p
,pt(tp,
tLttPp,PL,
(P(P,P(P(
,L-Pp,t(t,
(PPL,,tLPP
ptPptxPpt,
Lt),U,
L,,L,t)
t,p,p
t(tPptPpP
tLtxPp,
t(t,ptPp
ttLttLP,
,P(Q,T,L
PPLtPpPt
LPpPTPL,,P
(t,(P)P
zUzVV^
^:b:^
PP(t,pPP
tPQLP,L
:b?bg
? >>f;
,P(PPpt,p
0t(t,(
L-,L,x
-P-,t,LPP
,P(P,pPtP
,P,p,tU
tLUPU
QLPPpt,pPp
L-,T)
0-tTp
x,tp-
P,L,,LPtLP
LP,(P
t,tLTtP
PMPPLPt0t
(P(UPPLTPt
p,PP(tP
TtPqxU
QT9x1
(t(t,LPLP
t(t-t0
xtPuTuP
t),L,PMt,
,MPM,
P(P,P0tTP
,$,Pp
(P,(t
P,(P,p
,(tt(
L,-L,
P-,LP,L
L,Ltt
Q,L,-
LQ,txPt
1,P(0,ptpP
Q)-,M
,M,,p
PpPp,,p
(,,M,(P,LP
P,(P,)
,P(P,P1(PP
L,P)PP(y,P
,pUPT
t(,P(
t,pPP
QLPtpxt
QP(x,m
(,PLPPLT
P,L,Q(tPL
p,PLPPMPpP
TPxPtp
,QLPP
LP,p,t0t
,tPpP
(PP(,,
Pp,tpPt(
PLPPt
$u(P,Qp-t
tpPtUP
,tLtx
$,$P,
t(PtL
t(PtLP)tt
LtPpt
PpPtpP
pPxPLPL
xPLxt
tpPtptPp
pPtptP
> ?Fb
g>g>>
(,LPtLtPpP
Pp,uL
BbCbB>cBa
L,L,t,
t(tPpttp,t
c> B?b
t)ttLtPpPt
0t,puPp
>f>>B
P(-t(t(tPp
,tpPptPtLt
t(t,tt(PPp
PttLtpPt
LPp,q
P,LPQ
LPLPPpPT
pPP-t
P)P,(t(
,t)PtLPP
(P,,L,t-(P
PptPLtP
V1^:U
,PMlt
p,L,(
PP(tPL
x0UTx
t,pPtPpP
xTQVb
,M,(,PLPLt
$(P,QPLP
(,(P-LPt
P-,tL
:^:1^
p,L,L
Q$,LPLPpPt
PlPpP
:2:^:
$P$PLPLPP
x0Q0T
yUUTPU
PLPLt
TxTx0-
tLtPx
x,x,y1x
P(-,P(P(,L
PP(,uL-LPp
L10PE
L,L,P
,t(,,tLPPL
,$,LP
tLPL,Lt(t,
,P(P,Lt,PL
Pt0,l,
LtLtp
tMPtLtP(tP
LPLtp
LPtptPp-tL
tu0t0tp
tLttLt,
M,P,p,LPt
LtTtLttL
p,tLtQL
$,L,p,L,P
Ltxtp
tPpTtx
Pt(P,p-P
L,-t,L-tLP
PptPpt
(t,p,t
,p,p,,pPt
tTtpP
PptPp
,P(,,L,
,)PxPv
ptPLPLPxy
TPLPP
PP(P(,
Q(P,-H
L,PPpP
(ttPLPLPt(
pPpP,
(,L,tLtP
M,(,L-p
pTtxPpPP
P(QUt
P,pPt
PM,x,
pPPLPLt
,L,PLtP
pPxPtMt,tL
t,$t(
,L,,q
(tPtptLtpQ
,$PLPtt
(P(tPtUPT
,(HU,-
\P-P(
L,pPLP
,pPtp
PTL,P,L
P$,tL
-P(x,tx
yl$$l
Q(PtLtt
P),-(tLx
1]10-
p-p,0
1,P)P(
L-tLt
tLP(t
UUTU1
Ltt1x,LPpx
-,x,PQxPM
xux-t,PM
Lx,QPq
Q,(P(tL
Pt)P(,LT
TUYT9,1
PtTuT
,L-t(P
(P,(PPptT
TyTT1
LP,)P,ptL
>Bc>
tUP-(P,pPt
p,tLt
UyUTUT
1UT1T11
t(xPtL
t,p,t(tLPP
U1T10
bC>Cb
,)PPLt0,x,
t,tPp
YY010U
P-(P(uxP
P,LPpPp
]xUUTUTUT
U19U19
L,t,pPUP
P(P,Pl
(1T90
y1y1T
L0tLtLtt
PP-L1
L1,U1
UYy1y
LQPMPL
PpPLPtLttp
-,PPLPxQ
t-tPpPPLtP
P,L,L,tHtU
x0U,LPQLtt
,1P-0U0
xMV2>
LQ(-t(xP
tPTPtp
T11T1U0-1T
y1x1U
(P,,PLt,uT
PMxQp
]y]xyTU
,pU0U,p,pP
Uy8yU0y0
$,L,(
t0PLPtp
(t,pPt1tL
Tyx1x
P(,tpPT,p0
ttMPP
ptPL,M
pPL,px
-U-UMU
,P,ttLP
^:^:^:
,)x,L
UxU0UU
U]U0z
?cbgG
Q%--%-(%U
t,Pt,p,p
\u]--
^:^Uyy
1-)M)1)M1M
1u)-)1)U)Q
q)M)qMMq
ltplPp
,ltltltlP
LPLPptLl
Pltltp
,pPpPtl
]T01$
ltltltpPpP
y1TU0U
1L,$$
plPpPltt
lPtLllt
tltPpPLttL
x\y8\U
Pt(tHtLlt
1T]\9
pltLtlt
p328-1
ftsTitleOverride
Sound Recording (page 1)
ftsTitle
Sound Recording (1 of 3)
The enjoyment of recorded music depends on a series of mechanical, electronic and optical inventions. Although sound has been recorded and reproduced for more than 100 years, techniques have been revolutionized in the 1980s, producing much greater fidelity, convenience and reliability.
Three forms of recorded sound now exist: records in which a fine stylus travels along grooves; tapes in which sounds are recorded as magnetic patterns; and digital (compact') discs in which beams of laser light read patterns of binary digits.
Mechanical recording
The first decisive step in the recording of sound was taken by the American inventor Thomas Edison (1847-1931) in 1877. Edison's phonograph worked by converting sound vibrations into grooves on the surface of a cylinder covered in tinfoil. The grooves were cut by a sharp steel needle (stylus) mounted on a diaphragm at the narrow end of a large horn. Sound channeled through the horn made the diaphragm vibrate, causing the steel point to go in and out and to cut a line of varying depth. The sound could be reproduced by putting the needle back to the start position and rotating the cylinder at the same speed as it had traveled during the recording. Better results were obtained when wax cylinders replaced tinfoil in 1888.
A major drawback of cylinders was that they could not be easily mass-produced. The German-born American Emile Berliner (1851-1929) resolved this difficulty in 1888 with the invention of flat discs. In his gramophone records, the groove ran in a spiral from the edge of the disc towards the center, and the vibrations were recorded and played by side-to-side movements of the needle, rather than up-and-down movements as in Edison's phonograph. Once a master disc had been cut, it could be turned into a metal die, which could then be used to produce as many copies as required. The earliest records were made from vulcanized rubber, but a more suitable material proved to be shellac (a resinous substance derived from insects), which was in use from 1895.
In the 1920s the quality of recordings was greatly improved by the change from acoustic to electrical recording methods. Instead of relying on a vibrating diaphragm, microphones converted sounds into electrical currents, which could then be used to drive cutting machines to create the grooves. In playback, the vibrations picked up by the stylus were used to generate an electrical current, which could be amplified by electronic circuits and played through loudspeakers that converted the electrical signals back into sound.
Record decks
Today's record decks use fundamentally the same principles as the original gramophone. Long-playing records (LPs), made of vinyl plastic instead of breakable shellac and rotating at 33 rpm (revolutions per minute) instead of 78 rpm, were first produced in 1946. They required much lighter stylus pressures to avoid grinding away the soft plastic; and because the grooves were narrower, the styluses needed finer points, usually provided by the use of diamond or sapphire. Instead of a maximum of about 4 minutes' playing time per side, LPs offered more than 20 minutes. For the first time, really accurate reproduction of sound quality became possible: the age of high fidelity - or hi-fi - had arrived.
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS (LASERS)
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* COMPUTERS
* MUSIC
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
),$Q$
U,P(P
y,$y,
T,LQp
-1-10
UT,xU
1-1U9
0]9a]
\9<aA=<
a@=a<a8
98a@=a
<a@=e<9
]9<Aa@=a8
9<e<e=
8a@a=A
\9=e<A
8ae`A
=e=@=\9
]==d=`=]
9`A<9
9@=`=]
9a@a<
=`Aa9
9=`A<
9`ij>
ijja=
]>fjFEa
9>j>E
Bbij=A]
=fEFiE
9`ia9
aFiEAa
]=EiEa
^::^^
aEiiE
T810\]
9aAa9
0189aEih
\a<98
T1]<A
P00<A`E
0T8e=hi
ii@a9
0T9=`
T0]<eD
T08A<a
,0T8a<
0T8=dE
,T0<eD
hh<@`
T08d=
0T8<@
MTyU1
T08\<
0\8<hh
0T8`@
88<`h
h`@`8
8`<hh
8ad<h
U9T]\
]01]^
TU0U1
1Ux1-
-,yUU
11]1U
22{2R
V2{z.
*2zVR.
1]919
VVzVR
^::^:2
19U19
0U0U1
RVQ)$
y9U11-
FjFjF
f>BbBjB>
fEBaAiaiba
=b=a==
AaA]=e9
]9^:-
8<\<<
8\<\<<d88
`@`<<d
<8<d88
`8`8`
U9]19
$Qt%$
9=f=e
$,qPQ
8a@`<
1--191
]==dEi
`=e=E
$-p-$
PHHPH$H
tIluL
tlulull
HHP$$
$$,HH
ltlPpH,$
$,HtmP
$$,lu
qPM-Y
1-1--
-11-1
U:]11
$$Htll
5]1]]
$,HtM
bb]99
$$,(tT
P(PxPp
P0tTt
P(0x1P
]0U0-T
]8989
8]<e9
\<<88
]<Aa8
9<A<a9
=d=<e
9=d=`
9<e==
\=Aa=8
p328-2
ftsTitleOverride
Sound Recording (page 2)
ftsTitle
A diamond stylus traveling through the grooves of a long-playing stereo record. The frequency at which the stylus moves from side to side in the groove dictates the pitch of the music, and the amount of the displacement dictates the loudness, thus the wavy groove seen here indicates a loud piece of music. The inner wall of the groove carries the signal from the left-hand microphone; the outer wall carries the right-hand signal. The stylus illustrated in this false-color scanning electron micrograph is encrusted with dirt, even though it has been thoroughly cleaned.
Sound Recording (2 of 3)
Magnetic recording
In 1898 the Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942) devised the telegraphone - a forerunner of the modern tape recorder - which recorded sound by the alternating magnetization of a steel wire. In the 1930s, steel tapes were used successfully by radio stations. However, the invention that made tape recording widely available was the introduction of strong plastic tape covered with iron-oxide powder, developed in 1935 by two German companies, AEG Telefunken and IG Farben. Domestic tape recorders using such tape first appeared in the 1950s. Sounds are recorded by passing the tape in front of a recording head that consists of an electromagnet fed by electrical signals from a microphone. A magnetic pattern corresponding to the sounds is created on the tape as the fragments of iron oxide align themselves with the magnetic field. In playback, the tape passes in front of a second head, inducing in it an electrical current that is proportional to the magnetization of the tape. The current is then passed through an amplifier to loudspeakers, as in a stylus-playback system.
Today, the commonest format for tapes is the compact cassette, introduced by Philips in 1963, which is much more convenient and easily handled than open-reel tapes. The latter are still used, however, in situations where very high quality is required, as, for example, in multi-track studio recording. The effectiveness of tapes as a hi-fi medium has been enormously increased by the noise-reduction system developed by the American engineer Ray Dolby (1933- ). The Dolby system uses electronic processing to reduce the steady background hiss that is otherwise audible.
Stereo
The principles of stereophonic sound were first demonstrated by the British company EMI in 1933, but stereo recordings did not become widely available until 1958. In cutting a stereo disc, two microphones are set up at a distance from one another, and each of them records its own set of sound signals. The aim is to simulate the way in which we hear sounds: having two ears, we simultaneously hear two sounds, which are slightly different and come from slightly different directions. The two channels are recorded on the record in a V-shaped groove with a 90 deg angle. The inner wall of the groove carries the signal from the left-hand microphone, while the outer wall carries the right-hand signal. In playback, the stylus moves from side to side, sending the signals to two loudspeakers. The effect to a listener placed in the right position is to create an illusion of the left-to-right spread of the music. The same effect is achieved on a tape by recording the two signals as separate strips along the tape, then playing them back through two speakers.
Amplifiers and loudspeakers
At the heart of any hi-fi system is the amplifier. An amplifier is essentially a set of electronic circuits that boost the signal from the stylus, CD or the tape deck, which is about one thousandth of a watt, to the 10 watts or more needed to operate the loudspeakers. The circuits are now made from transistors rather than valves, and much effort has gone into designing amplifiers that produce the minimum distortion of the signal.
Loudspeakers convert the electrical signal from the amplifier back into sound again, usually operating on the moving-coil principle. The current from the amplifier flows around a coil of wire that is placed inside the field of a permanent magnet. The interaction between the field produced by the current flowing through the coil and that of the permanent magnet makes the coil vibrate. The coil is attached to a cone of stiff lightweight material that vibrates with it and creates the sounds. No loudspeaker works without distortion over the whole frequency range, so it is common to have several different speakers within the same cabinet. Each speaker serves only that part of the range for which it is designed: low frequencies (i.e. low pitches) are produced by a 'woofer', high ones by a 'tweeter', while more sophisticated loudspeakers may also include a mid-range 'squawker' and a very low-range 'sub-woofer'.
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS (LASERS)
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* COMPUTERS
* MUSIC
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
lH,$$
H,$ll
lHP$H
lHlHl
$H,$P
$,$$,
H$$H$
HP$$H
l$HH,
lHl$,$
$H$H,
lHl$H
llH,H$,
$,$$,
H,$,$,H
,$,$,
PH,HtHH
H,LPL
(P$P(
llHH$$
,L,pP$
lHl$$
$,$,tL$
,$PPHH,P
H,H,(P(
PL,,LH,
$,H$H$$P
l$PHt(tLPp
H,LlP
t(HPH,L,
pP$Hl
H,L,p,p
PLHt$PHPHt
(HPLPp,P
$,H$P$,
PHPLHPL,p
t$lPl
$,$,$P
tp$lP
tLtLt
tLPLPPLt$,
Lt,ltLtP
PLt,tH
$P(tPL
PpHPLlPpPp
PHtLPP
PH$tLt
Pl,H$H
,$tptL
tptPptl
PpPlPlH
PptLt
0tHPL
H$tLt
tlTtLtP
$Ht(l
lPltp
PpPpPt
$HPHl
PLl,H
lHlHl
(QP$l
Ppt,p
$tPptP
),$ll
x,x,p
-(T$-
PptP$L,tl
$Q,t)P
Pq0u,
tPLlPp
tLt$x
,LP(t
,Q)tU$
l$H$H
,MPM,-
HPHll
t0$-PLP-
LH(lt
LTt,t
x,-l-M
Tuq,t
PLltL
tTP$tP
x1,Q)
P$$l$P
tLtH,$,
LPtH,tl
P(PLt)P-
llPll
PpQxx
UH,Muq\
yu,qPLtTQ1
-(x$1t)
uT]LUQp
(Q,xy
T,yTQ
TQP)x
PLttL
M,Q0t
y,uUP)R
xQp0,
x-)PQ
MTxxP
PUu)-
0x-t1-x
Qp-TtQ
-MQ--
QPMQyP0x
UIUQTy
Q-mTQ)Q
-x-qQ-xQM
tUQx--
Q1-,y
--M-M
I-,TuLT
Q)-%-
uMtxtM
tx-(UPM%
QxTQM
uMyP-
),Q-x-1u
0-L1-M
$$HtL
Qq.t(-t
-I-QM
Tty,-m
Px,)0-Q-
tqQxI-
-,--MQt
xu)t)
-tQMP--P-t
t(tH,t
)tPyQ
1y,x,p
Q)uuLQT
Q%,M-
x-UtT
t)--u)
P$pt(
UQqx1I
0Q)P,u\
)uxu(
UQ)--q
$1txTt
TuLy-
PT-PL
Lx0Q-MR
-,MQM
-UTTQ
QpPQ,LPQQp
QpPtP
PtPuQxUQ-x
u(yI,
x0tx-T
t-PPMPPq-
x,u-P
P-uL-
TxTTPt
QxP)uQ
)-QLu-L
QU-QM1
-P)x-
xQQMu
Pyu)QT
QpPU,
-MQMQ
QMQLyP-x
UP-yPy
PITQ,MQ
--P)P
,uPQL
xTttLuTt
x.MQU
M-0Q--NQP
Tx-Mx
0Q0xt1t
u)Q1%
RPxQM
,M,I-
t,x1Q
yPT-NP
Q0t-q-
MQMPT
0uQMP)
)P-(u
-pyU-Q)t-,
Q)Qu)-1)
ut-p-Q(uU
L-p-q,M-
PTTtPq-
q,QPq1--
PpQx,
-xtU--1
QMQ-(
,L-Q*
P.I1T-
QQvlU
,L,1u
x-.L-M1
Txu,)-
-T-MT
QxxPTtU
tTQ,qTuTQ
y,-*-Q)
M,p-.
xQLx-(P
xQMtxQM.
)u--(Q0QP
)-uxQu
Q)-u0u
Tt-qu
%v)1QP
L-Txx,
I-u1u
%.tUQ-
Px-1q-
U-).M
T--%M
yQQ)Q
tLT-L
-p0u*u
u-QT)-QL-
Q)QQMPM
uQp-QMm
-LtQ-
M-QMTx
-0tT1T-
u-%-q
U,QPx
QMQ).P-
Qtx.u
)-)Qq-)QQ-
t)QLU.
ttL$0
yQ-P-
Q,2QP
--M--
-xtQutU
L-u)x-M%
$tlt(,tP
1-QRL
-N-Q-I
Qq1uT
Q)t)P1
u--1L.
L1-*Q
(%u&--M
--M-Q
),u-)
-y,)u
M0-Q)
M-R)-
lIQlPp
pQt*PQy
--PMtu
)u-1)-,)
-u)u-
LQM-,q-
-)Q-N.
N-MPN-
-QPLuM.M.
)Q)QQ
pQP.-M
Q-M--q-QLu
It%myU
Pu(Q.)-p
u)uQ)
-N-Q-
.)PQM
.xQ0NTuM
-M-tp-M
tM,x\$
1PQuP
--R-*Q.
-1)Q-M
QM,Q)
1Q(t)R
PTQ)-
*QPy-
q&uQq.-
Q),x%R)
Q%-tMQ*
M-Q)-1
Q)-q-
-L.-Q
%R,QP
PLQP*Q
M-M-Q*Q
qPp.-M.-N-
pQ-M-uM-)
%tPp&
R)Q-q-t)P
)Qp-R
`$l-Q
--N-L
Q)-u)R%.
%--T$Q
NIt1I
It8P8
-M-.LQM
(uPM%-MP-
llP$$
&QQ--M
&-)Q)
.)-M-q
PLQ-pQP
P--M-Q
&--p-
$8$%P
$,$,$P
,pPM%
t%PLQ,
t(P$,(
,,(t$
,p,P,P
L$P(t
vUH$Ivy
,M-tl
PLtTt
,PTP$x
%m,pT
-IQq-P
%tt0x
P($-H-
Q)-.L
tIt,L
H%ut(
p328-3
ftsTitleOverride
Sound Recording (page 3)
ftsTitle
The surface of a compact disc. In this false-color scanning electron micrograph the plastic covering on the surface of the CD has been cracked to show the pits and blank spaces that are 'read' by a laser device. To reflect the laser light, the pitted surface is covered with a layer of transparent plastic. Further layers of plastic protect the surface from dust and scratches that could affect the sound quality.
Sound Recording (3 of 3)
Compact-disc players
Conventional record players are analog systems, in which the shape of the grooves is a direct and continual physical representation of the sounds of music or speech. An alternative system of recording, made possible by modern electronics, records the sounds digitally, as a series of binary digits, or bits. In a digital system, the sound is 'sampled' 40 000 times a second, and its amplitude and frequency (volume and pitch) are recorded as a binary number. Recordings made in this way can be turned into ordinary analog discs, but the advantages of low distortion and a good signal-to-noise ratio are better preserved in the form of digital ('compact') discs.
Compact discs - which were launched commercially in 1982 - record the bits as a series of pits or blank spaces in the surface of the disc, each pit measuring less than one hundredth of a millimeter across. The discs are made of clear PVC, coated with shiny aluminum and finished with a clear coating of plastic laminate. The pits are 'read' by a laser device, the light from which is either reflected or scattered, depending upon whether it strikes a pit or a blank space. As it scans the record, therefore, it picks up a series of signals, either 1s or 0s, which are the original binary digits of the recording. These signals are then converted to analog currents that can be amplified and fed to loudspeakers.
The advantages of compact discs are high fidelity and robustness - dust and finger marks have no effect - and they have already superseded LPs in sales. In the early 1990s the Digital compact cassette (DCC) and Mini Disc were developed. DCC is a digital recording and playback system based on tape. A mini disc is a miniature version of the compact disc that records.
Making Compact Discs
The life of a compact disc begins when a microphone converts sound waves into electrical signals. The voltage of these signals is measured and electronically coded into binary digits. The binary digits are then coded further to link the two stereo channels into one pulse.
A blank glass disc is coated with a light-sensitive resin and spun under a laser beam. The coded signals are fed to the laser as electrical pulses and are emitted as light flashes that cause a sequence of pits and blank spaces on the coating of the disc (these are revealed once the coating is chemically developed). A mold is taken from the master disc and any number of discs can be made from it. Each disc is given a thin aluminum coating to make it highly reflective, then lacquered for protection.
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS (LASERS)
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* COMPUTERS
* MUSIC
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
Outline
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Picture
xTP(xTxt
PpTPP0HtTPp$,
P,x,p
t,PLP(
pPpP(PPp
,LPP(PP
PPL,PLP,P(P
pPxPLP
P(P,t
,HPLt(PPxPpP0P(t(
pTPP$
xHPp,PP
x\x\P$PPTt
L,P(t
xt(t(P
p,$,PT$TtxPxt(tT
1t,,PL,xPP,x
0$P,L
,tLPL
x,PpPxP
PHHTx
$0$tTtTt
xPtPt
,PL0P,pP
,xPpx,,PL,,p,L,$P
$,$Pt$,L,PP
P$,,PL
Pp,L$P,p,P$
xPx,tT
,t$tPP(t,
L,(t,L,(,
,ptLtxPx
tLtLPH
x$HPP
x,PLxt(P0H,p,PT
,(t($
PPLP(t(
P0t,$PL,tT
PPTtP
$,pT,L,,tx,$,,$
t,,L,pPt0,P$t(t,pt(PP,
y0xx0x,
,xt,LTP
0$t(PPP,t(t(
PxPLTtTP
xt,L$
Px\pTTt
,H$\xTx
Ppx,PLP(PPp,LT
PL,,$
$$,HPp,(P(tP,xt,
Pp,tTPLtL,tTtP
t,pxT
$,$PL,
xPptT
,x,LPLPt
$t(tTt
PP(t,P(tx
,HPt(H,t(t($,(H
tTP$T,P,(,x
tT$,$$
HPt,P,p,xt,PT
0$P(tt(
$,PxT
xPpPx
,pxPxt,
tPpPH,p,pt(t(P,LTP(
PL,x,pP,
,L,(PTPP(P,L,,L,t(0t(t
(PPL,,
,pTPH0PPL,tx,
Ttx,tTtT$,p
$$,P(t,L,tLt,LP
t,$xPPH
,,$Ht
PxtPxx,
tLxPP,tTt(PPLPL,PPT
t(x,LP,L,t$,
H,pt(xt
PLt,p,P(t(t
PLxPx
$x,xH
PTt,$PL,$xPpt(
,L,P(t(t0tpPxPxP
$PpxPx
,Htt,Lt
,pxHT
,pTtTP,L,pTP,HPx,xPp,L$TPPL,PLtTP(PptTHPP(x
$,,$TPL,LPP(
tLP$,tLP
,,tLx,L
xPxtPLx,L,
$,t,pP
TtTP(
tx,LP(
,$PLPPLxPPTP,p
PP(P,L,P$
(t,$0$
L,,LP
P,L,,LPP(t
PPLPL,pP(P,$,
,H,,H$P
tLPPxPLt(PPLTPPL,L,
PLx,p
ptPxPH
P,ptLPPp
tTt0L$tPx
lTP(Px$xtL
\pPPtpTt
(txPTHLPpPx,t0P,LtLtTP(x,t
LtTtLPP,p0$,$
,p,t(Pp,PTt
$PT,HxT$$t
LxT$x,LPp,
P(P0,PLPH,t$,xPH,P
t,(H,(t,LPtTt,LP
$xPP(,PP,LPP(tpPxxP(t
P,(PTtH,(
HLP(PP0PT(,,LPx,t,(t,P,p,xPP,x
,xPPx
xPp,PP,
0TTPP
LTtTt,
PLxtP
P,p,p,t,LP
H0,LPT,,p
t,LTt
(P,p,tTP
(P,PL$
P$tPPTt
pTHxTtTHxxPx,P(,H,x,
P$L,p,L,
t,pHTtPLt(
,T$,t
PPpxP
PPxPT
Tt(txPt
TtTPLxx
t0tLP
(x,Lt
xTtPxxHx
Tl0tTtPx,
$,x,LPp,PLt
(t,L,$$,LtPLP,
L,(P(tt(P,p
PxtLT$xt$Pt,
tL0x,LTPP
tTtPPPx
$PxPLx,p,P(,P
xPx,,tTt0t
,ptxp,x$PxPp,TP
L,$,px,
p,PL,xt
TPPtpTx,P,$PLPt(
P,xTPL
L$x,xH
t0t,L
L$,tLxt
tT,t,
tLP,H,tpx$H
TtLxt
PL,tT
t,LPpx,
,P,,(
t,,Lx
$H,t(tPPTP
$$x,PpPP
$,$TPH,
P,L,pT$,x
PPLPp
H,p,$t(
x,HtxP
PxtxPt0t(P,
xt,TTtpx
,pTxP
$,Lxt(xtT
P$PTxyl
x,p,x
xPL,PL$,Lx
PL,,t
xTxt(t(PLxPpx$,,PTt
P(t(P,
ptLPL$xP(,t$,P
,Px,pPP
PLP(t
T,xP(
PtLtxt0
t,(tTHPLP
TPPLPL,
p,t,(PPLP
pPpPt
ptPx$Pt
TPPLt
Pxt$PP
T$xPp
t(xT$
T,p,,T
,LPL,,L,p,$t
tP$P,$$,$(,LH0t(t,
(ttTP
$$L$,t
$$x,xPLPx
x,H,Px,
,P(t,Tp,tLttt(tx
]P$p,t
TttTPT
PpPPTxt
,x,p,P
tP(tTtp
PPTPp,t(Px
t(PLx,tL,x
t$tT$P
x,t(x
PP,tpt
Pp,HxT$,PH
,$$Lt,P,L
(t,pTPPLP,LxtPxPPPx$$PPL$,p,pPP(
,t($P
$,H0HPp
PpPx,x
Pp$,L
$$,t(P
($,$PH
,p,tLP
tp,p,p,
x,x,LPHtTt0t(tT
p,PHT
pPtTt
tPPL,$P(tt(
PxPL,tp
\HTtpt,
,,tp,
PLtt$0l,$,(t
xx,t(H
11Q)T1
,tPLTP,$
p,P,LH0$P,,($,p,tP
PHPLPtpxt
Tt(HPp,t
xPxtHtT
,Pxt0
PpTt,LP,L,p,
Tt(PxPTtL
LPtLP
$tLx,p,p,L
Tx,t,txP
TxHxPxP
xPpxPP
pTxPtx,ptPxtLP
($$,LTxPt(PHPx
,HTPLt
,xP$Pxx
PLPtTP$
,xPxTtp
)11-,
-T1x1T11y
Tx,tL
,x,p,P(t
,px,LP(,
(P,L,PL,,p
,L,PpT$tT
,tL$Pt
$P(tx
l,tLP,(P
,$$Px
xPxxPptLt
t,LTPT
PLtxTtt,
,tLx0t$
,PLtP
,LPPLx
QLPPx$,L,PLtTt
V)U1-1)1
101(1-1]
H,L,P
P$Lx,LTP,pPPPp,PP$tTPPLPx,
,LxPL
t(tLP
,PTx,
x,t(x,
x$PTtxPtLPxt(,L,
t(P,L,t
,pPp,tPp
,LPP$txPx
,pxPx$p
,PLt0t0P,L,
,pT0HtLT,xtPLP
xPp,t
-y9-1
1-11-1
)-1-Q
9t1T\U0U
PpPx,L,L,Pp
PT,HxPP$,(tP(t,L
PL,tT
0tTP,tpP
(PP$,L$,
0t(,PL
TtpPLtPP$
0tTtL
LtTP,t
xPPPt(HT
tLtt(tP
TxxtxPL,x
Q11-1:
Q2U11U1
Q-U1-1-,U
T-10Q1\yT1\U
TPTtp$
Txt,PLPtLPPL
t$$PLx,LP
P(Pt,p,
L,L$tLtt
,$$PpTt
,$PHtT
L,PLPpPt(tP(P
tPP,pPT
tTtPpPLtx$t
xx,Lt
PLTtLtp,L
Ttt,T
xTxPPH
,$PL,tL
TtxP(
01-11
Q111-1
M11)-1Q1111P1U
0T1U\QT
T,PL,p,pxTtx$PPL$,L,(P,
,(,PLP(PP
(HPxt(tx,LP
PpPtP
H,$PLt(t
tTtx,$
,pt(PL
,$x,pP
P,PL,,
(PP(PL
--1)-U-Q)-
8(0-]
Tttxtt
,,LH,
x,tH,pPx$tx
,LTxP(,P,L,
L,p,t(,
,xtLPP
(tLPt(,(
,TtTxPpP,H
P,$PPLtPPt
H0Mtp,tPxt
tTt$PT
U1)1Q-1Q1)
-M1,-1)11-U-
,pt,p
T$P(Px,
H,Ht($,p
($,PL,
(t(t,t,H,H
,t,LTt
Pt,PtLt(t(,l
,pT$p,P
11Q1U
----Q1
T1-T1-x1
TxH,xPPxtTt,p,p,tLP
Tt,PtLPL
,PPPp
,$,LPP0t(,t
H,HP$
$$,t,$PL,H
txPxPL
tLtLtp$
TPLt(tt(tLx
,xtT,L,$PL
PPPpxPxxP
1N1-)
$x,P(T,t(T,,L
,L,PPT
---Q------
11,0-P11-11U\
Tt(P(
TPHPp,
xPLt(x$
,p,PLT$$,xt(PT,LPP
,$PP$,PP(
P($L,
(,x,,p
tpPt(,xT
PxPPLttPLlx
T,(H,x
,pPLPP,x,t0tTP
tPLPx
L,t,p0tPP
,t($tTtP
P,,$,L
T,,ptPx$P
(t$tLttPxPpP
$Ppxl
-1-11(--1-1
-,--011-TU
TtLPt
(P,(x,p,tLH,$,LHt(
$,Lt(t
PHxtLxPTt,
Pp,,L$PH
x,P(t(
(xP(,LtLtxPxttLP
t0tpPTP
HTxxPPPpxT
xPL,l
pTt(,(
Txt(Pp,tT
PxLTT
tt,xt(
\U\1Q---1)11-
-1,--
P----01P1
PpPp$,
p,t(Px,p,t(
P$PP(PP,PH,pT
LtxP,t,TP,,p,,LP,tPP$TPPpPPPxt
,t,xx\HP
PPtTPLPtPtLx0
t(PLxxPxPP(
8t$,pP
9U1Q0-1
-1---
---111-
-1P]T
,tpTtTt
LtTlxHPP,Pp,H
PPTP(P
,p,t(P$$
t(t,$P$
Tt($P
xt(tPx
PpPxtpTt
tPtTt(x
tLtp,x,P,x,$t
xTHPT,
0tPtLxP
LxPpxPtxtT
$x$tTtTtpT
1-11-1-1-1
--Q)1
L1-11
TxPLx
,pTtP
tPxtTP,pT,HPP
\P(PT
$$PL,t
x,LTP,PLt
t$,pTPPp,p,P($T
HtLt0txtTtT
$$tTt
,xTt(P,pP
TP$t,
t,LPP,xPpt(,
tPxPLt
tpPH,
P,,Ll
21-)1--
LtTP(PPx0\\T0\9UT$
]T,LPP0\19T10tPt00T0t(,(,
t(t$,$
P1x1,1
xP(PP
tTP,l
,tp,PxtP
x,pTP
,tLxtTtPL
PLP,xPLP
xtPx,PH0
xt,,(tx
t(tLt
TxtTP
,pPPLx,P
)P1T-Q
$$$$t,
t,lPH
H$$PL
$,t0tPp,HPP
P$t$t(P,p,PPpP$,
----,9U,
TP(,L
t,LTt
xtPp,
,PPLH,
t($PLP,,L,tTl,(t,
P,LPTPpPTP
x$PpPT
t$P(H,tPL
PLtTtpT
xtTtt(,$t
Ptp,tLP
pPLPT
tPxtP
,xPLTtL
1y11R121U
\t,LP
-,11(-
U-(U-
x,p$P
PpP$$$,
t(tPpP$xUt
t(P,L
t(tpP
t,($PL$PPL,pxP(tTt
P,L,tLx,LPtt(H
L,PLtP
TPHPtPtL
txPLPtTt
$xxPt(tLtPpTP,
Px,$,x
$PLTxtPpPL
-1-1)1)
$,LPP
-,-----,U
T$Ptt
PHPT,LtTpxH
$TtLP,p,,
Ppt,pt,
t$,pTtTt
PHP(x,PL
xxtTPPT
$Tt,t(x,
tLtxPt(P
PptH,pP
PP(P,p
p0tTt
xTtxT
xPxt0tt,
tTtPtPx
-M1Q1Q1
T$,tT
t(tPLPP,
P11y1100
Pp$,P
,pTtx$
tTPp0
(l0t(
LP$t,LP$P$
$t($H
p0tLPP
Pp,P(PPL
$L,tP
PptPxPtp,t$$
0xPxt(
tPp,pT
x,HPT$
,t(tt
x,t0t
$P(t0
Lt,L,
1P11)
11T-x1y0T0
PLPx,,p,t
PxH,pP
Lt,x,x(
HTxt0$P$,$,,$
p,t,t(,p
,,x$,
pPP$t(
,LPPpP$
Pp,P($
tPPTtp,L
xt(tTt
pTHPPL,t,
,$$Pp
0Q)1Q-
tH$t($,H
PP$tLP$P$
$$x,p
$$$,pHPL,
$$$,H,x
P$t$H
PLP$tLP
P(PPp
tPLPt(H
y1)-101M1L
-0UT10UU
xTPPL
LP(,p,p$
TPL$PL$Px,P
t,(H,$,PLt
TPLPP
t,$t\$
,p,,p
PLx,pP
Lt,LPt
,tL$Pp,P
0$tLtT
pTttxt
,txPLtPL
p,pPt(
0tLt(xP
UY1U11-M1)1
TtL,x,
TTP$0
0x,LPP,T
--1-,U1P
x01TT\
LPt(,tLtxTPH
,PH,(t,(PH(tP
tLPP(tPL
TtTP$t
L-pt$P
PTxP(ttTtLPL,x,
,$Pxt
$,tLt,
TP$PL
x,tPtt
01U1(U-U
$,H,(P($
Ptp,xP,Ht$
P(tTPLtHx$t0
PH,$Pt,P,pHPx$PP
P(P(t(P
P,LPpP
TU$,$t(,pTH
0tLxPp
Tt0,(t,
tPttTP
xPLPpPxTtLt,
]t(PLPT
ptPp,pttPpxtPTPtLtPPp,tLPL
]y-1-
U---)
t(Ptt
-0--1Q
-,PU-
Pt(t,PLPPH
TPPPLt(
,LPLPpxPHP$,Pt
,$,P(
p,$,L,L,$
H,x,PTt$xPPp
H,(P$Px
xPPtLt
tTt$PxP(P,xx,p
Pptt(t,PP,,(t0$,tTx,t,(
TPPLPPxx,
LTtxPx
y-)-1
]]\x,t$
,x,xx
x0TTP
\0]x,L00P
t$Px,
(PPPP(
Q,--1)-,
HP(P(
pPP($,LPPHPptxPxt,pPHPp
$P$P(t,(t(,$
t(,,t
,$PLt,p,t$,,(P
x,px,
PxPx,p
xPpTtT
(tTP(t,pTxt,p
tpPp,txxt
PTPpxTtTH
-U-U1
P$tLP$t$tp,H$
$$,p,$$
,$H,H
,H,p$PL,
tLP$Pt$PptP
Lt$x,P
tLP(P(P
,--11y8-0x
,$,pP
PLtPPLt,
xPpxTPtT
(P,$lPPLt
$tt($t$0H,pPLxPP(,tPxPL,$,$H
$P(x$T,P
L,t(x
t(t$Tx$PPT
xHP(xPP
tPpx$
PPPt$,pP,t0t,t(x
tLtPp
Px$PLt0PPPTtPt
0-1T1U-M
PPt0x
TtPx,tx
TTTx0
---0T
0P]0Q\
x$,tPxPP,xx
P$,xPPL$
TtLPP(,TPp
x,p,t(xH,LP
,P$PPtTt0
,tLPP
txTt,xPL,$
tt,L,x
tp,$T
xPPLx,p,,tL0t(xPx
HPpTP
,tLTt,(
(ttL0
$TP(,pT
$t0t0
$LTPL
,U9Q0-0U0-P1
,tTtTPHP
$tLxP
x,ptL
,,PHPp
,$PpT
tP$$,L,
PTL$T$t
PpPPH
0,L,P$
PPp,t
Pp,PLxtPP
UUU1U1y111
xTt(P
PLP,pPx
xPt0PPL,t
TH,LPxPtTt,L$
0HPLP
,$Ptp
tTpxP
,pPPPH$tT$$P$P
,p,($
$$,H,p$T$,pPPLP$,P
x,LHPL
t(t$(tPLPLx$,P
H,pP$xx
TtTP,
pPtHtP$xt
xPtPpTT
PLx,(txP
tPPLtx,L
,LxPxPx
1-11--1
0tp,p,x$
0TPPpPxx
x$tT9
TPLPPLPtx\
U]TUP
pPxPpPL,PpTxt(tt
$t,p$
t($xT,pP,t
t(t,(,LP
xP,Hx
TPTxPtL
x,L,(PPx
T,P$$
PL,x,
TtTt($
1T1V1q1Q1
$t(x,
$$$$,$$
tT$(t$$$
,p0P$,p,PPL,t0
tP$P,(H,l,l
,P,LPPPp,,p,,
$,p,(tPxl
pP,($
tH,(P
PptTP
Px$tTPH,p,
t$$PP,ptPpPt
Pp,tL
tPLtt0,tPt,p0t(ttt(t
PPPxP
TU0y1Q1111
$,L,t,p,PxTt
TPtLPLPP
TtPP$TP,p,(tT$tpTt,pTPL
$0P,pTPP
$PL,t
$P(,t,
p,TPt(t
L,tLPP
l0x0t(xP
xTxtL
)U--Q
T]t,t
8]9(PLP(
8T0-1
xP,tx
1y,pPx,pPP
TtPtL
,tx,LxP,pPxH
,PLP(t
PLx,tL
P$,t0P,
L,PL$$-U,,
tPLP0xPp,P0t
tTx,L
0l0xt(
PLt$P
0y1U1Q1-U-1
($ltlPP
tPH,,l,t
PxPpP
p,LPp
,tpPxPlx
Pp,tPPPL,$tLT$
(t,t(P(tPt(PLtLP$P0PH,p
$,Tt0
,,0TP
,t\txP
111Q-1
LPLt,
\0ytt
,pTT0
0t$0tPpPLPxPx
,(P,x,P$,(P
,$PPpTH,LP$,(xtL
P(P$$PT
x,tPLtpPpPP(Ppx
0,x,H,$T
x\pPl
xPt(t
TttHP
tpPxP
Pt,tpT$H,p,
y-0Q11yV1-1Q-
(t,LP
$(t(P,P
$,(t,$
$,PTt(tpPH$
$$$$,H
P(tP,p$,p
,$PPLPP
P,L,L
L,P(P(tp,P
$Pp,(l
Ptp$x
P(,txPP
TtTP(P
,tLt(tP
1---U1Q
xPxtTtPL
TP,pP
,LPx,Pxt
PpTPLtLPP
L$P(P(,pPtp,(
P($,t(t,$
,(Pt,$$
$PLTP$
$,LPpT
xPtpP
p,p,,L
Pp,L,
PHtTtTtTt
,tPpx
$$PLT
xPP$t
y111Q-
,pTtpT
TxtTx,
x,$t$xP
,t($,
TtLPtL
xTtP(PPpT
,pPP(
$,L,$$
P$,p,($0t(tPp$P
0tt(t
,Lt$pt
t0PLxPLTx
x0tLPP
tPP$P(t
x$Ttp,,
$t$,($
$PP,$
H,t(PP
P$l$H,P
t,txPt$,H,,
P,,x,H
,LH,l
,($,(t
HLtHTtP
,,x,L
P$$P(t
(x,LP
PLP$x
p,LP($$P
Px(HP$$,
xHPLT
]\U1-x11U11
,xTPx
P(,$,t
,ptPxTtxPP
t(ttT
P(TPL
,LPxP
HPPLPx,$
PLP,$x,t(t,(
,p,P$,$,
PPxT$
L,PTP(,
P(PPP(tT
P$PxHP(P,
,pPPH
0xPLPx
$tpt,L
PPTt(
HPT$LP$Px,
PP(tH
,PPLP
t(t,LP,p,
t0PL,
PPp,t,tLPP
P(,PLPLPP
xTP(P
PL,t,$t(
TPTt(P(PPP
,p,P,TH0t
P(x,xTP$HxPP
tx,T,,
Pp,PL
H,(xPP
$tTt,
(PP$x
x,xtpTxPp
tPL,L
H0PP(
P$,P$,
$,p,(PH(,P
p,LPp$xPP$t$,tLxPt
PLPtp
tPHPp
xP,,$$PH
Txxx0
,PTPLx
y1y1-U11
\pxTt
TPL\x1
LxPL0
P(t,L
t0PPLTt
xtPp,
t(PPLPP
PHPL,P
PLP,xPP
tx,tL
(t,t(t,
,xPx,
,,P(PTt,x
TtPLtx,
Tt,(xtPL
,tLtt
pTPt,
Tt,tx
]U111U-U1Q
P(PH,Pp,t$$
$$HT$$,
t$$$,HH,(lH$$PTPH
tHPL,$$
p,HPt
Pt,tP
PtPpPPH
,tTt$,$$P
,,p,$(
$x0P(P(
,(t(,,(T$
,HTtL
Ptp,t(
PLTtL0$t,pt,$
$Pt(P
P$,t(
PtL$(P(t,H$TP
tLP(x
Pt,xTx
xPxtTpTPTx,t,pPLPtL
1y1-Q
tH,PTt0P
,L,pT
t,p,P
,ptPL
,t(P,$
Lt$,(
TP,P(PxtPP
LP,,$,P
,L,$PPL
Px,xP
xt,(xPLx
xPxPt
txtTtL
Tt,PP,P
9y11-
Q-1-U
$Tt0U-
,Pt,P0
$xTtLx,x
tPp,$
xtLxt,
,Px,pP
P$,LT,PH,L
txPP(
,pTP,tt(x
PtLP,x,x,p
1P1U1Q
tPpH,L
Lxt,xP
t,xTtH
(,tTt
(xPHPL,pTtTLxt
tL,x$t(t,p,
$tLP,
$,p,L
t,L$,
,Lt,P$x,TtLPL,tPL
H,p,PPTP
PtLP,xTtTtT
x,p,pTt(x,p,xPpt,LPx,L
(tTtx$tLt
,tTxP
11Q111)1-
,xPLTT
Tt0HPp$
(0,,(
P,H0$,
PLt(tPpx$Pp
TPt,L,$
Pt,Ht(t,xt
$,$,PTH,L,
$,$,L,
$,(P(,t
,,(tPt
L,LPt(
,pP(,L,LPxtLTtPt$
,Q$Tt
TPpPp,t,x,LP
PLPttL
tLxPx0t
0ttTtT
TPx,t(P
1U91---1
$,(x,P(t$,
$$$PP
t(l,$
PH,lPH$tPtxPtTt
x0HxHPp,tTtL,tL
0tt,LPt($P
PL,PLxP
Px$t(
PP($$
,L,LtPP(,
H,p,,
PLP$t($,L,pt
$Tt(t,Pt
,t,$,(,
PxPLPp,tx,LPxPTP
,xPptLt(PTxTx$,ttTtxT
y1-U-1-
,PLPx,
xPP(,H
,L,P(tT
(t$tx
,L,HPP,pTtLtx$t0Ht(tPL,$
,tLt$,
Pt(t,xH
,p,P(PPtTt,p
xTtxttTtxH
xPpTtLtp
PPP(x
x,xPP,
l,tLPpTxt(PPp
9\-P1-11-
]]0t(
,p,H,p0
x,L,Lx,
$$p,$
,(P,t(x
t,,LPP,$
PLPtT
,p,LtPL
PLxP$t
tpTtxP$
(xPL,
,pTtP(
,t(PL
PptPtxPPT
,t,PTPLxPLP$Tx
t(H,x,Lx
px,tPptTtT
\y1-U
11---
$,H,L
t(tPpP
tHHTP$,L
t$P$PL
t$P(tT$$$$,p,PPtP
t,l,tL
tt(tPLP
t(t(P
P(tp,
,pT,p,pT$x,L,L,xt
,L,$xPx
$$$,L,L,,p,t,x
0t($,pP
Txx$x
LxTtxTxPx,tT
0xPLPPx,ptLtPL
Q1T11y
0x,tTP
$,H0HPH
t$t,L
,P$PtL$,
PLxPxP
x,,TP
$$TP(t
,$,pP,
P(,P,
tPL,$x,
,LPPLt,P(PL,,
PtTxPP$tT
TtLPL0t,p,,px$tPL
Tt(xPx,PPLt,
,x,L,
t0tPx,
$,L,t
$$P$$$$$$
,P(PP
P$,LPP(P,PTtTH,(tPL,tp
,H,x,t,,LTPT,LtP
tPLxP,(t0t
PLP,$
t$LPTPL
p,pxxP
0tp,tTx
Tt(x,t(t,xP
pPxPL
,p,PTP(
P(PHPLP
,tx,HPt$P,pTPLtT
,p,(P,l,
L,$,P
x$,ptTP
P(tLt
PLPTt
t$PxT
0x$$T
0t(tP
txTtTP
ptTt(xPLPTPt
t0tTP(P$(tpPPTPPxHTPtTtp,
x-L1111-
x90Px,0T9U9\PT\110Hx,T
(PLx$,p
$,L$$
$$$,H$$P
tx,ptPxx
,$t(tTt(t,,$P,
,,xPp,t(P
TtTt(tPL,L,
PLPPLP
P,L0$
xPxLttp,(,LPL
PLPH,
0PTt0H0PPptPtTPLtpTP,px,
PtL,$,
PPTPpPP(P
8]Y]-01-)Q
$$$$$H
$t$tPL
$$$$P$$,$,$
PtH,ptL
,pPHPx
$,tTtP$
x,xt(t,xPL,tLP
p$tx,
p,P,x
(tPttx
$t,p$PPLt
PHtTPPTP,L,t(t(
L$PLx,,xx
TLPtpP
PPP($x$,
Tt,p0tPPt,txxPpPL,tpPx
\xt(tT,xTtxPxxT
U1--Q1
\x,LT
Pxx$T,
1$,P,H,L
pPPPx,(PLP,(P(t,P(
$Pt,p,(t(t
tTt(HT
P,H,(H,$t,pPL,LPP
P(P,LPP(P
p,P(,H,L
LTH,p,pPtxx,$Px
Tt,(Ppt
TxT$PxtTtPxP
xtLPPxT
TttPt,PtT
]U11,11-1
tx,P$
,tTP(
PLTt,$
H,PLP
$HH$,L,$tPLtPPHPHt$x$
PHPLP
tLP,$
,$t$PTtPp
,ptpPLPx,PLttLxP,PLPP(t,t(PLP
,LHPx
(t$PL,L,t$
L,L,,
pPP$,L,tL,
tTPLt
LPPLH$PLPT$x0t,(P
Px\t0PPp,t
,(Pt,(x,PLtTPP
(,HPtpPPL
1T2--U
0TT,LPxt
,0PTT0PP
LtTpt
pPHTHT
,HtLt
pTtTt
0t(H,
,PP0H,$,pPLPP$Px
$P(,L
tPL,xPL
P,PHPLPt0P$PTxx
p,xt,pPx
t,tTHP
xTtTtL
TTxPp
,tPPPp\tpPT,tTx,pt
TPT,x
H0$$,$P,L$
Tt$P,PLP$P(x$
,,L$,PLH
,p,P(
,t$tPpP$
Lx,T,txPLPxtLTl,
Px,$t,
tPL,(P
PLPLxPp,,pP$T
t,t(txPL
\x,xT
Ttp\tTtLH
91x1111U---
$PLPPP
$tpPPLH$,$,tLtP
PHPLPt
,xPxH
tTtTtP
xTt,LPpP,p,xTP
$Tt(PLPP(,,,(PPPPLTH,
TtLtTH
p,LP$,pPPLP(
TH,LPtTP,TH
L,p,Tp
(t,LtLPP
($$,x
Px$,L$Px
TtLP,(
TtxTt,
,p,P(tT
t,xttTPtxTtx
0U1Q1)U11-
t(x,x\x00PLP,LTPTx9U0T,LU,ULx,
,TPL0
P,LPp,pP
,tLPp
t,pPPT$tTPp
PLP,,$,L
P0PHP,
t(tpPPLPt
x,P$P($,(P,LPtP(
$PLPtP
,L,LPx
t(x,$tT
Px,HTtTPpt
TtLxP
1ub$,T,
$TP,H
Lt,pTH0,(
$,L,$PLPHHPHH,HPlPt
PHPt,t
HPt(Ppt
xHPPpH
$t,tLPx,(tPL,t,p,P(,P$,
,L,t(t
,P(t,p,,xP
,L,tTxP$
,t(t,(PLPLPPP,(xT
,$,$,xP
,(xPLTttT
tP(PPt
,,ptT
(-1Q-UU11-P
PTtPxP
,LPP,L
,(,\0
TtTt(
ptLtPP$$,
$PPLx
PPpPt(t
,t(P,P
yPp,L,,t(t
,H,LPL
PxTtHxTt
tx,L$PpTtTxtt(x
]T]U0Q11111
Tt\U9x9
,U0P01
t,,p,
tPLPL,$
HTPH0t,pPT,pPL
LP,t,p
Ppt(P
,LtLPPpxPTtP
p,$,p,L
t,p,$P
pTt0,
t0t,(P
HPPPLt(t(t,H
PLPt(
x,x,H$PP(
0tTxT
x,pPxtLx,t
111Q-Q)
,l$PxP,
PtltPp,0PP
xTt,L
,,x,(
p$PLxt,t(P(PLx,p,HPp0t,p
,H,P$,pPPxPPL
xP,P(,H,L
,L,HPxP
t(tPp,P($x,L
t(t$,,
$,P$P
PLP,x
$xPP(PT
tP(t,$
,pTtx,
TtL$,x
,t(tTxTPPt
1U1)1-11
,P,Tx\T0x,xPx0
-,tLT,-
P,(P,
x$t,p
tPtTt($,
t(tPTPtLx,PLtPLtx,L$
0tLPPLPtLP$,LH
pTPHt
(tPP(t
($,LPP
P,p,$PPLP,,p,LH
,p,($P
,LPpT$H,$
x,p$H
TP0tx,
P,tTxtPLtxP
(tTt$tL
111-1-1
Ht,$$
$P(x,p$$
p,H$PL
,pHPTPt
LPl0l0
P(t,L,H,
,pTtpPx,(xP(,PLP(PPp
P(,$,PLt
p0,t(PPL
(,p,L,t(
PL,$t(
$,,Pt
T$Pp,PHT$P
t,t(t,p,tP
Tx,tT,
TxPt(
xPxtpxx
111U1--11
TPpTT
PxPPPLt
xt,(P$P
PLPPt(t,px
PLtt,LPtpPt($
tTP(P,pt,(,
(P,$t(P
xPt(P
HP,LHT
,tpPP,p$tpPL,t(t
x,(P$
(tTHTtp
1T11)1-
]xTtx9y0
P0U-T
$t(t,
Pp0tLxyPx
$PPH,
$tLPPLP$txT
PLt(tL$
HPx,pt(,,
tp,pt
txPpP
,p,LPP$,$,
HTP($P(t,pPLxPx,$PT
p,PLH,x$
$P,tx
Tt(tT
,PtPt
-1U1-11)
U$,$$t
$HH,pt,p$PHH
(,$lPHPx$P
,tTtp,$$$TtLx$
PPLx,x,H
t(t,$t
$,$P$,P
tPp,p,
t,x,pPxP$PL
,$p,P(P
PxPxxH
L,p,HPx,$xPP$
TtLxPp
(tPxT,tLxP
T1y,U1U1)1.1-
t(Pxtx
\PLP,T
PLPPx,(xP
xPxPtLx
0tPLt(x,
T$$(t
,t(HP$
TPPPL,P(
xPtx,p
tPtHtT
tPLP,
Ttpt,t
U-1111U11
,HtLt
,H$$tH$,t(,PtLH$$H,pt,
tPt(P
tPLtLx,tp,PL
LtLx,
$,L,,L,t0pTPpPpT$,t
t(tt$$T
PPxPPTt,P$
TP,$P,LP,xP
t(tTP$,H,p,P
-y0y0Q11Q1
PP(tx
x,tLt
PTtxt$
xPxx,p,Ht,H,
,P(tPT
$,t(t
xH,L,L
tPpPPL
$PpPPp$$TP,LT$P(PT
tTxPtTtt
t(tx,pTt
TtxtPt
,Lx,(,
Px(HP
Px$,tL
1-----U-
xTxPL\
TPLx\
(0x]y9U
Px\U1TPT
LTt0P1
TTP(P
HP($,
$,L,t
$PL,t,
,t0HT
,tLt,x,,p,x,L
,H,,,L,P(tL
,P(xt
PL,$,ptLP
PxLP(
L$,p,L,,t
x]-T11UM11U1
$H$$H,$t$$H$H,H$$
t,$PL$H
tHPH$P
PHPpxPt
PPt(x
xPHPxPp,
(tPpPxt
t,LPPp
PPT,P
PxP,LPP,,
,LtLP,,P(t
PH($P
$PPxTt
tTt(xPxPxP
TPPt(
--1-)
xU]Tx00\1T1U8,
$,x,t(tx
p,$,P
Tt,(tP(H
TPp,$
t(tPLtP(tT
pPt(t(tP
lTx$PP(ttLxTtx,t
t,x,tLx
PpPPPx
TtTtTPt
Ptpx,t
,x\t(tPx
T1111U
$,Pp,xH$,
$$$,$$$
x(PHQH
$t,LH
,($xP
$,(t,Lt
,H,Lt(
L,p,,L$PP,Lt$x,LPt$,PH,,L$tLPLP,,
$tLPLPPPLx,pPtTP
tPxtTt
PpPxtT,,
,p,PT
T11U-U111)-1
PxLTPp
LPP($tLP,tx
Ht,pH,L
HPP,ptTtP(x$,xt(tLP,
TP,t,px,t(P(P
$P,H$
UU-1-1----1
\]0,0]9\TTT,L$
,L,t,$
\pPt(tLx$H(,t(
TP$Px,(xP
$x,t($tpTP
p$,HL
H,H,$P$,
P$,LPPLPLxH,(HTt,pPtT
,tL,H,
P(P,L,xPP
,TtPttPPLPP
,L]P9T
$$,$,HH$$$
p$$P$PxP
$tPHP$P(tP
x,xPP
x,(t,
t,L,tP
(PTtt(tP(P,LtPp,HTPLP
tT,L,xP,LPLP
,PxP,t
tTtt0,Lt
tPL,t
,lx,t
,p,xP
L,P(P,,t0HPLt(t
PLP(PP
,PLtPpx
t,PPPt
xPxtTP
L0tTt
U-1-Q
0HxTT,
P0,$P
,pPPx,P(tPLPpx$H,p,P(,P(t(P,Lt,tpTtTP
t$$x,tpP,pPL
,p,(HptP
$,(PLtLPP
,PLPPP(P$,
Pt0t,L,
$,L,$
Pxt,L,P,t
\PHPLPLtp
PpPpx
,U--u
11\Tt`U1
L,PTP
TP,,t(
0$$TtTt(tPx,xPpTt0t($,pP$t,p,P(,pPP$PpTPT
t$,,LPpP
x$P$PT$$,tTtP
t,HPtLPPxP
$H,PH
,H,P(P(t(
(PLtLt
H,(tLxPtLttH,pPx
,,P(,p,(
PttTt
x11U11--Q1
xPP$t
tPTPtptx
pPtLt,p,pPP
px,L,PL$,t$PTPL,
TxxP$T
,pH,(t(
P,L,P(t
L,t,t(tPP$,p
Px,PLt
tTTPx,L$0,L
P(tTlT
xtLtTtpx,
,$Ptp,x
xPtLHP
U1--,U
-11)y
T,t(P\
x0x,9
TPLT,L,
xP$,(
Pp,$Ppt(
t(P,HtLtTPLPPp
Pt(T$$P
PtLHt(
t,H$x,($$
PTtLPtPxt
LP(tTP
t0t(tpxHt(P
PpPpP
PtTt$,LP
tTtPt
yeQ1-11-)Q11
$$$P$P,H$$$$P$
PtH$P,
tLxPLPpP
t(P,L,
x,PTt$
PLP,PLx
TtLx$P
t(tLt
(t,tp,,(t,pP,pPp,
\pPP(PL,t
p$t(tPLTt,
(PP(x
PLtt(t,
,p,PxPt
Ltt$P(T
xTPTP
0tLPP
tPHH,
x\P]])-1-U1-
t(xPt,p
($,P0TTP,
,pPL,
xTt,xTt(tLt,L$t
P$xPpTP$,pPtL
,p,Lt$PPLPPpP
P,p,ttL
t,pPt,P(P
xt(PtT,$,
TtpHTt(Ptx
tTPLP,$xH
Tt,tL$t(HtLPPp,
,x$,p,tLt
tPpPt
T,1y0-,
xPxt0P0Px0UxTPxTU1,
(T9U81TTT0U9T1U,t(
y,P(P(
T,,t0
Px,HxPL,tTPtTHPTP($$$
t(txTtL
,p,P(PxP(PPpPP
P(PPPtTPLPpx,PLPxPTPp,t
$xt($t,p
,tTtpt
,,p,t
TP(tpPT
(tx,PL
\p,tp,,x
PptPPL,
xPpPt
H$,PP
1Q)-y
$$$$H
,t,LtHPt$HtxTtTtTtH
t,p,tP$P(xPpTl
$,tp,
tPPLx
xtLPPLtLPLtxPp,
(P,(t,P
t,PLPtpPP
$xPtpt,
tHLtp
Lt,HTPH,pPxHtLt(,
Ppt(t
TUt,p,t,,
Ptt,xt
ttPpT
HH(HP
xPptLtP
,H,tp
PTT0TU0P,x
t,tTtTtp,
,t,($,$
x,PLx,
(t(xT
xPLTt,
Ttx,tPtx,
x$Pxx,pPx,xP
t(tPp,,LH
px$,L,$P
xPpP$
TP,pTxH,HtTxtt0t
L,H,LPP0
TPLt,,PLT
$$$$$,p$$
$,t(TP
P,PPP$PTt(t,tPL,H,tLP$xPLPP
PLPtp,LP$xPP(,,H
t(PPt
,xtx,PP
H,L,pPP,
,pTxP
0H$,H,,
xPtxTt
Pxx$ttHxPxt
Q-Q1Q
,PL,L,H
PTxTPLt,LPxPP
TtLHtx,p,
(P,PHPHTHL
,P,H,(PLPLtt(HPx,$tLP(t,tLx
P,p,t,ptTp$$P
x$xTtL$P
,L$,P(t(,
(P,p,pP
t,tTt,tL,,P
Tt,tx
xxTHxTP
0,PL,
x,x0U1
T]LPx
TT,P(P0
0xt(P
,$PxP(,P
$x0PTt
TP(,H,LtP(
t,,ptTLPPL,tTPTP,
tPpPP
L,ttLx,pPpPpPxPL,,H
PxPH,P
,P$Pt,(
,xPLP$$Px
PxxPp,p,P
xTPLt
,P,t(tL
Q--.-11)
xxT$$H$
L$H,$
PPH$l
$$$t$t,PH
l,$P$lHTxtL$PPLHl
H,t$,L,lx
,(H,t0Pp0PP
PxH,p,,tL,L,tTP,L,t(PPLPL,pPPLPLP
,L,p,
,p,$,(t
p,LPL
PP,LP(t
,pPtTP
1-1.M
9t0L,
,tLx$P
TxH,xtP$xPL
PP,x,x$(PPPx,Ht(H,p
t,x,t(PH,P,pHP,
HPxTx
P$tPxxtPx
P11----,--
,PHT$
PPPt,
$$$$$P
$$P($$
,H$P$
t$$$,P($HPP,PLt(
xPt$xx
tTTttLx
t0PLPL
$t(P(
PL$tLP
,P(,pTPP$0P,(t
,p,t(tP,LPpt,LtLx$$
$,,(tTP$$
,L,P$
HPpx,$P
,xPP(H,LPL,,$$
,P,Ptt$P$$x$P
$PTxt
$HTx$tp
TtTxPL,t(
Pp,tLxt
P---1P)1U
PxPpx
,$Pxt,
,LPpPPL
$x,ptPP$t(t(P,L
P(t0P
xt(P(P
tpt,L
0tLTP
,p,pTt
,xPpt
---1Q
TxPxtLt
TxPL,
xTtp,\T0
Ttx\y
x0T0tPL
TPLP(]1T1T,0P(P(0-
U0PL,
xPLPL
,LPtx
xPPx,p,xPp,
(t(t(t$tPpP
(t(H,HTxT$TtPPLt
PxPp,
$H$T$
(xxTHt
,,HPP
xPtxP
$$$H,$,H
$$$$$PPt$t(H$$
$,P(P$$t
P,H,$
lPHtpPP
p$,LH
,txTtPx,H,T,p,(t(
LPPt$TPLPP
,L,,t
PtxPpx,pt
x,$xt(P(,t,
P$,P$P(t
,PLtTxP
$Pt($P
PxP$t(
Pp0$t
tLt,xt0tx,PptLt
Pp,tPx
tt(tL,$,p,$,H,$PpP
P(ttT$,ptP
,TPx,pP
T$H$0,t
HTxPL,t
xxP(P,HPLP
Tt(,pP
Pxx,t\t
tLPtxPp
-,-P---
t(T,P
($,L,P
$$,H,
$,L$$$
(xtTt(xPt
,p,t,Lt
PpTt,pPPTtTx
L$P,p,
$$,ptT$PLt
xtTt0Pp
--)--
t,p0PL
$,$$\,
$t(txPpTt,LTP
,p,L,PLTPPp,,p,P$PLTPx
PTPPLP(tLt
Pp,xP
(PP,pP
Pt(ttT
-11-,
Tt,p\
TPL,P0\T
p,$,P0
TTP(P
,LPPPx$
xtLt,P(PP
$PxPL,
xPPTt$PT$x
$$L,HPLt,L
PTtt,$
PL,$t(P(tL
TtTx,pTt
$t(H,
$PLPP$
$,$$$
$$,L,t,$,$$$,
P($H$$P(tt(PHP$$,L$tP
H,lPp
Ttx,pP
TP$tTPLP
(PLPP
xPPPxx
,,L,HPpPt
0tTPP$t
0t(P(t,P
,L,HP
TxtLt
tPH$t
(P,Px
\xtTxP
PTPT,L,
0-,U-
PLt(xP
tPxx,,x,LPx
x,x,PLPp,
,(PLP,p,p,$xT$,H,t
,P(tp,L,$P
t,,$P
HP$$t
$PPLP
Pp,t$HTx,tpT
tx,p,PL
x,,(t$
TPTt,xP
$xHPPx,
xt,xP
1\t(tLU
U0P(T
TPP(P0
H,HTP(
t$tLxTtt(x
T$tTt
Pt(t,(t
pt$t(t($Tt,
H,,tTP(t$
,xTt(t(P
PPLPL$,
PPt(P$,L
,PL$HP
TTP$,
0P(tPp
P$,ttLt
ttPpP
TtlPPxP
PlPLtP
t,px,t$Pt
t0txP
tTtPPP
TPT,H,PL,p,t
t(PPp,P(PLPPpt(tLPTt(
$,LPt(
TtpTt0HP
t,L$$PL
,$,pxP
x,px$,p
,LHPLPxPtx,L
xPLPL,,pP,x$PxLt,
x,p,t
PtTtT
T,01-
TtHTtTx
,pPt($x
,$,$0
PpTPLt
tLxTt,L
Tt(PPLPP(,P(,PL
t(,pP,p,,$,PLPTPtL,,$0,p$PL
,(t(tLP,pPPp,t,L
,pt,tT
P($P$PL,$P(,p,
ptPxPt
H,L,$
pPLPT(t(
,LPtT$$
PL$$P
$,L,P
$t,,H
PtPx,p,L,,xPLTt0t
P(,p,PLP,t(,pxPP(PHt
LH,LHt($P,H
x$PL,
$$P(t,,pPPP
tLP,PpPx
TPt0HT$t(P(PTt,TtTtx
,HPpTT
tLTxHx
tLxPx
,(tpt(
PPLPT
x,tpxt,$t,pt(,P
,L,P(tP,LP
p,pPP
,PLPTP,pPP
,tPtPL
PtLxPx,t
x1U]-,-,-
]90]]\\tpP
\t0PPLx\]9
(x\U1
1,0\P
,x,(PPL
)P(P(,,
T$P,$
x,LtT,$P
PPxPx,p,(PPp,tL,pTPPL,Lt,p,t(tPP$P
,t,L$,PLt,H
tpPtp,Tt(xPH
Pt(PPtp,HPHP
x,pxH,$
tpHPxTxt
Pt,tH
HH$$tPH
H,tLPP
tHHH,
$,pPtltp,P
tPt$Ht
$PLt,
l,tPlPt$(t
tT$,p,L,t(,P$
Tx,tx
Pp,t(
p,PLPHTxPxPLPH
pPptTt
,p,$,p,,
,tLPLPLtxtTtLt,
P(tPPLP
HH,(tL
TtTPT
Txx,pPt
PLPT,tx$
PLt(ttTxPH
PTtLP$
Tt(,$tTL$
$PpP,L$$
,px,$PP$tp,ttt
Ppt,p,tLttxPP(
TPP,pTtp
tp,,xP
xPTH,t
tPTPxP
pPLPtP
LPxTP$,
PpPxT
,pPx$
t(tPP
Px,p,L,tLt,0
PH,(t,
(,$$,
,L,LPPPHTP(tTP
,t,L,
PLtTxPL
tTtLtT
Ptt(P($tTP,p,PPL
TtpPt
xt(t$,P(,t
t,pPp,Hx
tTt(tpTtLtLP(PPpPLPxtPpt
PL\x\
PP8U18x8H0$
9TTt0\9T,pTx0]1\Ttp,t$P0T
T,LPP(
,xT,H0tx0x
P$PLP
txTx,xP,
Pt(P,p,LPLPxTxPpTt
$PPp,$,
t,(tL$
tp,Px
,t(,P$t
PTPt(
,TPTt
--1--
$$l$$PP
,$lP$$HtH,p$$lP
$PLP$
t$HP(H
$,t(xPp
$tLPPL
$t(t,
xPLPPPL
t$,t,(P,pt(,$$(xPPxPpP(H,P$P
P,(tPpt,PPL,
$Pp,L
,L$PL
ttLPt,(tL,Px
x$t$(PH,x
PLPP(t
t$tH0
,L,HP
p,t,(
xPLTtpTP,LP(PP
,PPL,P
Pp,P,L
$,L$P($,(HxHPp
PP0,x
PtxTHPx,
0PTPTPLT0tLP
tLxPP,t
HPLPLP
Tt,PP(tPxtLt
P(PPLtTHH,P
t,(x,tPL,,HTx,
TtLPpPtLPPP$PLP,t
pPTt(
tLP$P
x,,(tLt,LP
,P$t(
tTtPPH
,PPpx
xPp,LP($
0xt,x,p,xP$xHP
Tt,L,t(x,$PLH,LPL
$PL,t(PLtTt
xHPxPP$PTt
x,tpPxPxHx$TPP
,LHTxP
TtLt,$$,PTHP
\tLPTtPL
,t(P\
\tTPPTT
PL,pP
TP,0U
,,tPx
,p,PTPxPxPp,PLx
PLPLPTx
xPL,t(
p,LPPpt(P
,P$tTP$
,,p,t(,p
t(PtL$
T,$,LtpTt,(
,p$tTP(
,LPPxP(H,PP$
PLPHT
HPtxT
(U--,-
l$$P$,pt,t(HPL$,p,P(t$$H
$$t($
HHPH$
HP,t$$H,p$H
$H,(tH,pH,Pt($
t,pPt$
pPxP$xP$P
,$Pp$P
HPt(,
TPPt(
P$x,pTtx,pPPLtP
t$$Pxt(
$tLt,t,ttP(
PtPLx
(txP$HT
lP(t(PH
$xPH,LPPTPxtTP(H
TPLt,P(,t(
xTtpPt,TLtp
(xHPxL
PL,P,p,
,LPL,p,
tLPPp,tL$t
p,,LxPL
Px,pTlT$T
p$p,$$
PH,0P
y-11,
x0U00]p
0,pTt
,$,L0P,
P(,$xPx
xPxx,pPt(
t(t,PT
,TPP$P
$tTt(P
P$,P$
$tt$,t
Ttt(PLx,L,P$,$
PLt,(Pp
xttpPP(
PHPP,H
Pp,$$Pxt
0T,1,-
tTt(t
$,pPxPxt
0t,LPTtptLt(PLPTxtLPL$
PptPLPPLtLPPxt,p
tLPPHPt
,pPtTP
tPpTt
TTxTt(PPT8,
TtLxH
,x,p,$tp,(T,L
P,t,ptL0PlP
,P$L,tLxt(tPxPPx
tLT,PPp,
PLx$,p$PLPP
$,LxP
t$PL$tp
H,HTH,pHPt
Pp$P$
p$,L,H
1--1u
$,pPP(H,$,
PLPT,LPLt
HP$PHx
H,tTx,(tP$$
TP,HP
P$,HPP(P$
t(,,t(P,$PLt$Pp
$,$$t
Pt(H,L,
xPTPLx$tL
TP(PTtP(PH,p
TtPx(
,tLt$
tTtL$
tTtx$tPL,
Ppxx,
TxPTxt
0ttHxPtLxx
tLtTt(t
0t,tL
PHTPPL
,$tP(
,P(P$P
t,TPp
UT1--
\]]\]]
xx,LPT
0P,pP
$t(PPP,
PLPTx
,LPLtLtT
xPtTP
tLtPxPP,p,PH
Tt,pTt
$tTPPLPt
PLP,pP$PtTP$xHTxl\tL
txPp,pT
Pp,Pp
p,xtp,tx,HPLx,p,
HPxHPp,
,pPP,LPtLTHPLP$PLx
Pp,p,P(P
(tTt(tP(t,$P$t(
TtLPLPt,
,P(tTt
$,xtP$
,pT$H
]TUTU]11P
x,pPPxxPx
$,p,H
Pp,pPxP
,L,$,
t00$P$
tLtL,
tPLt(Pp
tL$,$
PP$xP
,$t(t,pt(,t
pPPPpP$
Tt(tt
lPpPLt
P(,tp,H
H$tTy,P($$,p$
P,xtTP(tP
,L,PP
,p,x,tx,$Tt
,P,(PH$PLP
$P,pPL
,p,LPLPL
,LPpT
HPx,$Pp,H,
,xPx,
0t($tp
T-1-1
$0tPPp
,tHxHt
THt,pPP
,$l,xPpTPP(H$,LT,tp,xPt,tP$Pp,
$t,tTt
PP(tp,t
1M11L
pTttx
]0]108x,x998p0t(0T1
0U1\0TP
(Px\P
xt$$tTt,L
$tLPT
p,tTx
,xPt(t,
(ttTtPHtLt(t
Tt0lT
$$PPpx,p,,H
-11---U1
$$$$PP$tPHP$lPt
P$l,HPxP$,p,p,
$Ptltltl$Ht
t,lHPtt
PlPpt
tLHHTHx
$PtTxt
tTL,$Pt,
$,xxPt(HPx,(t
tPx$$
$PPL,(t(PpPp,H
,P$,p,PTt
,PLx$TP$
P,LPT$tL
PLPHP
,(PPpPH
y9-x1---T-
,$,(x,t,pttp,tt
tPpx$,$
Ttt(PL,p,txtTtP
PtTt(PLxtPtTH0H$
,$xPPHPtL
xPx$P$P
$$PLx
9PTT1
t,t$x$$
T$Ppt
Lx,t$,
,HTP$
t0$,$
pt(tt(lTt(,PpTx,
,x,(t(,P($Tt(
,(P(l(t,P$,p$PptL
ptTxP
,Q---
,$,$,
Tt(H,
0x,t$,p
p0$,(P
Pxt(tP$t(ttPp
Ttx,tL
xt,(tPH
Pt,ptPPLTlPpx
,PLtx
,pTPPt
1-11U
PxTx9LP
(t\T9xPx0
tLPt(Pptxt
PP,p$
$(tPp,xTPLx,
t0tTtPLPx,LPL$PxPLPtTt(
LtPTx,
0,,xTtP
pPt$,
,,L$P$
(t,$H
1$H,Hx,$$$
,$$$PLtP
$P$H$
$$$H$PLH
HHPHP,P
Plt,HH
$tLPPPH,Ll
$$Px,tP
xxPPp,L
tpPtxPP(
P$$PL,P(t0tp,Tt(
P(txPp
HtTtpPL,tLPLx
t(PLt,
Tt(t(P
x$tpt
$tT$tH
PLPtT
x$tPtPT,
TtTtt$t
P$,LHxPx
$,p,tHPpP
L,,p,
PLPLPP(
,,$$Pt
PpPLHPt,PLPP
tLtTP,
LPp,p,
Pxtx,
,tx,,x
Px,p,LTP
--,1--
---21Q--
,x,-,
HHP$$
$Pp,$
$,$Pp
$tTtTt$
PH,tx
x0HPLPP(P
tp0,H
x,p,ptPxPTHtTtx,LP($,L,,pP$
x,P(tP
HtTt0t
xtTPTP(tP
xPx,p,tH
xPtLt
TtHP$,
x,tTP
PxPP$
Ttp0tPt
,LPtL
p,$P,
Pp,,p,pPPPpPPpP,Pt
Pp$$P
tLtxPxPLPH
,HTtpPx
xPtTPp
pPp,P(x$,
0t(t(t$
,pPtp
,tP$x
,,p,L0T
(,tLP
$TtLP(x$P
,P(PPxP(
$,(PP
HtTPpT
xH,tL$PPL$,t(,p$
tTP$PpPt,pP
PPPx,
$,tp,t
,Lx,$$P$
$lPH$H
P$t$$$
lP$,H
P$$t$PP$$
$HtHHt,H$HH$
x$PPH$$$
xx,t($
,tHPpxPxH
L,PLP,LtLP
,TPp,$$
PTtL,tpP$PLtTPp,$PP
PTP,$
xtLxPttLPx,
PPLtTtTx
x,pPL
,p,LTP
TtTtpPx
,t(tPPH
PtH$$
91-U12
tLPt0tLtx
,x$H,,pPxtLP$PLx
,p,,,P0t,(
$PptTP
TPtPpt
,LP$PLtP
x,lxtTtTPLtT
PtpPP
PptTtpP
xtPtH
PxTt,$,
$,(xPLPt(PL$tt,p,P(
LPL,PLPLHx
,H,LPLtTPPtTtTPL
tPLPPpt,L,p
t(PpPLt(H
,$,tPptTt
PL$PP$,
TP,H$$
$$H$t$,
PxPt(
Ptpt(t(P$,tL,
Px,$TPLt
T$$xt,($,
tPpTPx,PLP,tx,
,Hx,P(tt
p,p,tLtTt$
$P(tLt
$xPpt
xPt(txtLtPTtpt,p
,tTtL
HtTP(tTt($t
(HxTtLP
xHPxPPLt,pH
Tt,tx
PP($$
2U121
Pt$tTxT$$
H$$$$$
HPL,,$$
Ttt,p,xTPLP
Pt(PPLPtL,
PTtTPH
x,L,p
t,(PLt,$,
$xP(t(t,P(tLPPpPx$
t,tpPt
0P(PPH
,ptLx,l
Q]H0y
(ttLPt,pt
HPLPP(tt
Pp,p,
Tt,L,(PPp$t,T,pPtHP
,t,$tTt,p
t,,L,,PLxxt(P
TPPpT
xPptTtTHPxtxx
$PxtTH
xPx0U0tT
x\xH,
xPt(t(PtP
t(tTPLtT
Pxt(tT
,ptLP0x,x,L,pt,PPH$,$tLx
,P(,T,px
,(tTtp0
HPLPPL$
,pxttLt
M0U,-1P
pP$$$P
TtlH$H$$l$
,HHTt
PL,$H
Tt(PP$
t(tL,p,(tt(H,
tLtPP(P,HPp,pPt,(t(xt,(H
H$l$PL$PxT
$,ptTtL,t(P(tPL
,x$PT
Tt(tLt
tTxt,
Px,tlx
2^:^1
0T0x,L,
tpTxP
t,txPptPpPL$tp,
Pt(tPPL,t(t(x,pPLPPp,p,P
,p$xH,HPpt
P(tTtLtLxt
,(PPx
PtTxH$
x,ptL
x$$,p$
0T10U------
LT1t-TPxT
$$,P,
H,HTt($
,0txPpTtL
PPLPP(tPp,t$Pp,x,HP
PP(x$
$PHt,p,LtTtxP
PPxtPt(t(P
1T11--T--
t(,,L
PpPPt,
Pp,LPPL
pPPp,PLtPL,tpxt0tpPx
0$$P(,
TtLP,P
,pTPPp,,pTtxPx,,L
0tH,0
1P\xT
,P,L$
PL,Lx
PpPLPpP
PL$PTx
(t,L,
P(t,p,xP
,x,L,Pp,,(H$,tLPHTx
,HPP(t
,P,pP
tLPxtLtP
tPx,t0tTH
TP$xPt$
Q-29P1
PxPx$$lPpPL
,tpPPL
PxPL,
x$,PTtTtp$tPxtTxtLt,tTttLP,
,xPpPP(tt,p$PPt
PtpPPPp0
0tPPHP
$PL,x$x,$lP
-,----
pPP(P
$,pTt
tTt,x$HP(PP
,ptPpPxPLPp,pTtPp,t(P$PLPTt(tTt(TP,(t(
t(tTtp,
Tt(t,tLtLTtL
,p,t$0
ttpTlPx,
TtxPTT
T\]T0PP
0xTtLx09T]1T0PP
$,LHHPp
,t,(,PLxtPxP
tLtp,
$PP(PP$t(xt,pPpxPxPL,
PTH,H,pP,xPL,LTH,p,x$$tLt(t,
txPpPPp
H0PtpT
0ttLPPLtPtxPp
xPp,LPtLxPtLT
TPH,p,tTtTt(PPpPtLt
tTtPLPLt
,tt(PHPx,
PTtTPP
tLt$Tt
0tPp0
(t,tTPPxPH,pP
x,H,L,HPLTtPL
pTPPxPH,ptTtx,tPpPt
xPx,(
xTx,pTtTtPt
x$P(t,
tTx,L
TxtP$$tP
,pPLxP
$$tLtP$
Tx$$$t
PHt$Ppx
PpPH$$
H$l,H,$
Px,pPLP$
,pPPPHptPLP(
TPP$HT$
,t,p,P
,tLxt,(P,
PpPPPPx$
PL,tPpTPL
TP,p,
t,pt$
TxPt$
Px,LPT$x
,,(tx
$,xxPPtx
Px,LPp
(P,tL
t(PPLPP$
,pxxHx,xtLHxHTtPL
H,ptPxP
t(tLP
tLxtLt
U1,---1
Ttx(t(tTt
x,p,tTP
(P,H,(P
p,p,P$PTHPL
,LP$PtTtTtLP,
TtptPx,
P$,(tPx,
TtPt,x
tPt,$PPP$
-T----
Ht(tx,Ht
tx,L,$t$
H$,t,p,$t(tPxPPT,(t
,txx$
$$,t(Pt
$PtLx
tx,LtTtx
Pxt(tL
LxttLxT
,pT\Tx0x,L0
tPx,pPpPx
P(t(x
,$P,PT
tPx,p,(t
THTt,
$,$,$
HxTlt,L
$$$lH
TH$$H$
$$$$l
$H$$$x,$PtP
tP$$$$$
tPpTPPxt
LtPPH
xPP(t
LP(P,LPx
t$tLPLt,P(PP,pPPLx,tT,(t(x
,x,tT
xPp0t,
,tt(t
tHPxt
$P(t$,(t
P\t(PHPL
,$t(tH
t,PTP(tptPLT
tTPp$tP(HTPLPLt
TttPp,,PH,
,pxPP(
tp,pP
,U0U],
----1
,$,(P
tt,p0
ptTtTP
,p,l,(t
$$TP,(
t,xPpPtLxHPx
Tt,pTtx$PLt(
TtTxP
TxTPPptP
PHt$$P
LtTtLt
t,ttHxPtTt,pt
(tPxPpt
tTxt(tLPP$,tLP(PPL,Hxx$,tp,L
,tpPx
TtxPLtLtPx
,x,tTH
PHPtL
QU1)11UU---1U
t(tPp
PLPtxT
PxPLPt(T
t\pPxT
,ttPP(
tt(00
$Pp,tLx,P,p,t(PTH,
HTp$,$PP$H,$TtxPx$
P,pt0
$,p,xt
,x,PTHH,
,PL$P,$
PPL,$H
$$tx,H$
PtH$$H
l,$Ht
PpH,lt
HHPHH
,pt(tH
t$lHtH$H,
,TxTtH
,L,p,x
xPpTPHtpTtx,
tTt,pt,tPp
PL,tPpP,p,
PTP$HP
TtLTPp
,pt,pH
,pPPPptPL,
x,tPLPTtx
PtTtPp,tpPp,L,
Px,tt
HPPt0
$PpPP
tLx,PxPtLPP,
PLt,PLtL
xtLP($t(P(
tP,PH,x(Ht
LPPpPL$xt,p,
--P1--
-1-1,-
$($$$
$PtPH,$P
tTHPp
Ppx$x,P,HP,P
,tLxP
,tp0t0tx,LPPPPLPxtp,txx,LP
,t,pPxtTtTx,t,x
0lxPp
,LTT0T00
TTtTt
x,p,T
P$,$t$
$PLPx
PpPttLxT
PL$tTtL
pPtPxH,pTH0tTtx,tx
HHtLxPt
,txPLP,
$$HHPP$H,H$$$t,$$$
x,t,P(
LPPpTP(t,t(tL
(HTtt(tPtTtL,pPxPL,PP
LPtLPx
,PPpPLPpPLPTt
xTt,p,LTtLtxPLPLP(xH
Ttx$,H
--,1-
$tPtPPP
\t,$lT
Pp,xtt
,pPttTPt
t(tTtL
,$tTt,p,LP
p,t(xPPPP,L,tptT
xPt(Px,,p,PP$t
tTP(xt
TPTtp
PLPtT$
TttLt(tPt(
($,HT
t,$PPLtttLx
,t0,,$,p
xtTLP
$1Q1-(-,
Ltxt,L
PxPLP
,LtPL,tt(tPPTxH
TPP,pPL,PPL
,p,x,LP(P(tL
tpt0t(tP$PPpTP,pP(tL
$,PTP
Lt8t0
P(P$0
PLxtx
xTtPL$H
LxPPL,PLx
,pPPpTt(t
$Hx$T
,xPtLxP,
(PPP,H,pPP
,xPLPPPx
TtLPLtPLPP
PH$PLt,LPxPp,xP
P(tTtLPt,t
$tPLx
Pptx,
PL$,p,xtTt,pt,pTt
xPpTtxP$
,PH(x
,x0t,
,p,$tL$P
PTP(PPp,PLPP
$$,t(tPtpPP
TttLPtLx$
0t,pP$,LPLT
xtTt(t,pP
TPp,t0t
0Ppt,PL
P(PPP
xPLPxP(t,LTt,LPPLP
tLPLtTt(
xPLPxtx
,pPL,P,L
$,pxPx
tTtLxt(tL
tLtLxTttLTPt(tLPpPxL,PLPPt,
(Pt(,t,pTPHTttx
LtLP$PPpPLt,
PPH,pPt
xxPPLH,(,
P(t,pPxt,px$
P($tTT
H,PLP
Tx$tP
xt,LPP
xPpTtP,t$,pPP$
Pt(tLPx
t0PTt(tPxH$
T,$,LP
xPxP(tPpPx
PPTx,P
Pt$PtTHT
M1y1P
PtxHtT
P(tLt
tL$t(
,pPPLPP(xT
xPP,(t
TPT,PLt,
(,LPxPLPtTPLtPPPtLP$PTxtPxPt
,t,(t$,P$x,L,p0HtTH$
P,p,tL
PpP(xTtxl,,H,
Ptx,HxPx
Tx,pxPtTlt
xPLTtPx$x
,P($$$P(,p,p,LPtL
t(xtxP
,pPLHPLt,pPLT
xtTtpPPP
P$$09
,p,tL
PtpTt,xt
xPxx,t
TtTtP
TtLTtTxPx
L,,tHPLt$P
x,LPt0xP$
,ttPpPPLtPp,
PLPtLt,p,
,H,PL,p
0tTtTPp,
PLttLxPPxTtLt,H,
PLTtxPpP
tpTxt
,t,p,
TtxPxT
xPPTxTx0t(PPxxP
tPLPt(tTPxPPp
x,LPtL
HTtxTtLt
tTt,p
PP(ttLxPxPpx
x,t(x
tTtp,t,$
t(PLx,
PptL\t(,H
TPTt$t,$
,$t,(x
tTPLtpTtLt,
tTt,px,
TtLP,
HP,p,P($
PLTtxPP
Px,pPpxPP
PpTtTxt,tpPxP(P
p,xPPPxtLx$
LPHPt(t
TxPt,
tPxt(tx,,p
,tTtxxxPtp,P,PLt
P(ttL
TP(tL
P(tTt
PtTtx
PtLxPxt
PLPLxtP
PL,tpT
P$$$,H
tL,pt$$$
PTP(PTt,(tp,
xTtxt(t$P$PxxPx
P$t(P,L
PtLtTxt
HPP,p
P,p,PPp,PtpTxPp0P0xPxtPtPx
(PxPtxt
xPHT,
x,tLPP
t(PPTtpPLPtxPtT
$tPL\xx
,tLtPL
Tx,px
,pt(t
HPLt(t
,pPxP,PL
TPLtt(,
tPxtp,
,tTP(tPt(tL
THPxtp
$xTtPp0tPpt,
,tPptTtP
xtTt,
pxTtPptPptLt(
tPPtPxx,
xt($Pp
P$tLt
TL,PPp$H
TH,(tT
t,$xTtx
THTtpt(
PxPH,,L,PL
Pt$PTP
P$t,tLxP
L0H,p,x
,tPtLP
Tt,xP
,L,PLPLt
tptPp$
$,tx,t
x,xPxx
,pPx,tPLtT
tLt,tLt
xPt(tPp
LPTtPtx,PL,pPTxtP$
tpt(x
tPxt,LHPP
,LPtTPLt(
tTtLPPt(tp
xPLPxPPL,
(t,L,P(,,LPxtt
PLt(tLtx
tPtLt($
xPTtP
\xHtx,
,tLP,p
PxPtLPPT
PTP(H0
tLP,x
$,pTt,
TtLt,tLP$P
PtptPL,,xTtP
H$,pT
(t$$txtpTHTtLP,HP
TtTP,L
,p,,tTtx
,PPpx
xPtPLP
TttxPtTPLP,
t0t,xt(l
TxTtPLP
Ht,(t
tTtp,x
xPPTPLt,p
t(PTtxtPL
(xt,,HTtT
,pPxT
pxPxt
l,t(t
t,LPLtLPHt(t
xPpPt
tp,tTtLPpxPxL
tLtpPtx
LPLxP
PLt,x,tL
,t(tT
,PLxt,HP
0tPLPt(t
,PTptH
PLPtp
HtPt,tLP0t
t(xPPx,P(P(P,xt(
Ht,pt,$,$tt(
tTtPPp,t,tTPT,x
P,txtt0t(t
(t$,H,PtLPt(tPL,px,$tLtx,p
PL$PLPTPx
P$PP,LtTt(
tpPPL,L,xtT
,t(t(,tTP
txP,p
$,(PPL,t
t,p,,pT
(tpxT
,LPPLtLP
xPxPH$$
TPx,x,HPtx,LPL,
,pPLP
t,t,(,t
tLPTt
1PU-1
,,L,pttT$,LPt
1PLx,
xxPtP
Pt,tpTx0tTtLP
PT,p,
xPx,t(
xPxHT
PPLtT
PpTt(tLx
PPtPp
T$(PtT
Px$H$
t$tx,pTPt
$(,PPLP
PL$$H(PPt,xx
,p,PLx
p,xxt
TxPLlTPPPt(PLH
LtPxPxPx
Px,p,tLtPpTx,(x0t
PLt,t(
xt(tt(P,pP
tpPt,$
--11U
LPPtLx,
$T$$t
,p,LPt
xxPxP
TtLxPx$$x
TPPPTxPPLP,pt
TPL$Pt
xPPLt$H,HP
xPH0tLttptTtLPx
PxtxPxtpP$tLPtLtPp,tPP
HPPLtPP(
tLxtTx
HTPLPLPt$t
TPPL,tp
Ppt,L
,t(,pPPLxP
HH$$$
(P,p,pPPPp,xPx,
PTPPxPL,
$tLPT
x0t(t
t,,PTtPptPLPt
0,HPLPxxT
TtTHTt0x
PtLt\LP
,tp,PLPP$x,ptP
0tLxPL
tPpPx
P$HPtT$$
TxPp,pTx
PLPPLtTt
,Pt,$t
$,p,p
,,H,x
11--11U
pT,pPHPL$
(,tLPL
tLtt,Hx
TP(tTPLtx
pxPt(
PxH,P(
,tPTt,
TxtPx
PpPlPxP
LxPxTtx
$$,$,H,
$11LT
tTtPx
,p,tT
xt,p0PpPPL
\xPtP
px,tx,
TtPtpT
xTt0txt,L$
TttTPTPtPt
PLPTl
x$,ptTPLt
x,t(t
H$,HPxTtLtPp,t,
P(tTP($PPtp
,$tTtLPx
PTt(PPpPtLt
_:b:9--
,tLxP
,xtTtL
xPtx,
$tTP,
tTtp,P(tx
PptPPPtTxP
tPt,tPpPpxPt(PT
pPtx,t,p
Pxtx,
PpHxTt,
,LtHPL
,tL,p0
tP$t$0x,tLtLt,pTtt
Ht$$,
0H$xPp,
T$xxPxPxtx,
tTtt\p,tP
:^? >
PPpxt
TttpPpP
pPPxx
t(t0tp
TtxtL
0tpTt
L$tT$
$tTx$t,
Pp,HPxPpTtp,L
pPtHT
cb_ >U9,
---U19
THTtxP
tLtPtTt
TtTtL
Ppt,(
xHtLtP
Tx0P0P
^::^:::^
>^>Z1
P1--Y-
x(tTx
x,tp,tL
xPpxTPP
:^:^::^
::>2^:
::^:c:
xPLxP
PttLPTtLtpP,
x,HPH
xtLTP
TtLtxPPLt
xtTpP
:2^:^::^:
^:^:^:::^:
^::^:^
tTxPptH
Tt(tTP0
TtpH$
PxPpPP
TPP$,t
^:^2^
:^:^::::V:
PxTPPp0t,x
,H$Px
,tH,ptP\
tP$HP
$L,pt$
,tt(tp
,L,tTt
:^9^;:
:V:^::^
1T,M,U12
t,pTtL
tLx,P
,HLPtL
TPLHPPx
LPTxPx,
-1U::
:^:V:
:^::^:
1y11-11
,PTPTP,(
tPp,,p,
TPTttLttp
x,tTtH,,(
-1---8^
::^>^:
tLt,x
,pPtxPx
\P$,P$
,p$x,pPtt
Tl$,P
:>:^^
Q1-,M-
1U12^2]2
PLP,p,p
(tTxtLP,
PP(txPxP
P,ptPp,t
LH,PTtTtpP
PTPp,,HP
:^:^6
PLx$x
Tt,ptxPx
Pp,H$xP
PLtPtTtT
^^cf_>_b>^::
-11)1U1:11-
PPtp,
ttx0xTx
txPtPtPLx
,pxTtp,
P,pPpH
H,,pPx,,T
t(tPxP
::^::::
^2:Y2^
tPtTt
00tTtL
P,$PT
,(txHPLP
Tt,tHP
xPPLPL
t(PLx$PL
2^:^::]2^
^::^]^-
1U11^
PxTtL
tx,pt(
Txt(T
x$PPH,L
,$lPp
tPtxTl
:2::^^:
]]]1V2
^::^::^:: >f
Tt0Px,$
xPpP(P
xt,pP
,Pp,P
t,t0xT
^::^::V
TxTxtPL
tPt(,PLt
Tt,pxt$ltPt
PLP,pP
1U:U:
^:^:^::^
;:^::
PxHt0tLt
txPtPT
Pxt,pTtTPT
TtTtT
TttxTtxPx,
x,,pP
P$,t,H,pxH,
x,(,P$
11V1:
29U25^:V9
b:^2^:
^:^::
xPx,t
Ttp,t
txPxx,xTt
,LxPx,p
HPxTPT
:2^2:
t,p,$tpPtTx
,L,Tx
,tpTH$
9]:]:^
tPpxP
PtLP,$
xPp,t
PpTttTt
12112U
]2U:Q:9
TTPxH
PPPLt$txptPL
Q1U2U
2::Y2
^:^:2^:^:
,HPPp
PxpPpPpxT
0$$$P
xPPPH,P,
Lt,,L
t$tLTt$
M1-1Q
^^:^:
PptPpPp
,pt(txP
pPxtxx
xt($P
PLtPx
PPL$t
$,$xP
LtxPx
xxt,LtPL,
tpPxxPL
,H\xT
]2^:2:
^2:V:
tTt(t
,pxTtt
tTxTPx
,LP,L
PpPx$HtTtLTtPL,l
Tx$,H
tTtPLP
$,LHx
V91^:V
2::^:^:
^:^2^:^:^2:
tLPPtLt
00,tp
Ppx,P
t0tLPPxTt
$PtLtPptL
PTPxTt
pHxPpT
t,L$txPLP
TtPLTtP
xPtpT
PtPPP
Pptlt
xPL,,
,P$tx
tTxt,
,tHP$
TH,,L,H,p,P
2::^:
tTtTt
PpP,pPt
PxtPP
PxxPP
,,pTtLxxP
,pTt,t,
,(tTP
Pxt,p
LPtTp,$P$t(tPLTt,(HT
---11
$Ptp,,xtP
$tPlP
$P$t$
x,x,$
tL,tP$
(--,-
^:^:2^
tPtxtL
Tt(P,(t(PLt
TPTU]
---11
TttLP
tPt(t
PxLtPLtP
TtTtP
$(PP0H
Q)-11
PxPp,x
PLPt,pPLtt(t(t(
1V1UP1
HPx,p,
tTxPx
ptTtpP
P(P$,$P($$t
^:^:2:2
xtTtPH
PLPtLPLPt
-y1,1
--,-1u-
---,--
V11-1
PPLPp
xPPTP
PxPptT
PxPpx
tPtTt
Ht(tx$tt(
(t$,HTtLP,t
tLxP$TtxP
$$Tt$
$H$$$$
tTtxPt
,tTPPL,P$x
tTtPx
PptTt(lT
LPLtPLH,t
PLPPT
P0-x1T0
-1,M,
,$$t(
p,tTtP
tPp,p
TtPpPP
Pp,PT
,tL$t,t,$
Tx,pt
HPLtx,pT
$Px,HPP$$Px
PpTtPx
P$xPp,pH($
TH,P$,PpP
pt\pPp
(t,PTP
Pt$PP$TP,tLHTt
$TPPLHxPH
0xTtPH
,pPL,L
P$t(PPP
PLTxPL,LH
TPHP$PpT,LxPt$tTPPt(tPL,,Q(t$
,L,p0t,$T
P,PLx,,p,
,ptPt
TxTtL
H,$pt
,$x,TPLP$t(xl
Pxxlt
TtPLt$,PPPL
,,LPxPL$,HP
p,$,L,PL
tLP,p0
PPpPtp,PLxH,$
,LPtPp
Tt(t,p
PLPpTtL
TP(tP(H
$,p,$
$t(PLxP
,t$xT
PLtPxT
TxPP$
txPp,t,pt
TPHPp,t$t(P,LP
PL,P(
tPpPttLx
pPPLP
PLt$,LP
tPt(P
LtTt0P,$t
LPH,p
L,,LH,
Hx,t(t
(t,$,ptx$
$,ptPtl
T$t(t,p$t$t
lt$,H
0$PPlx$$
PLP,($t,$t
Pt$,LT
TtPtTt
T$t(t,
xPpPpPHt(
Pp,tpt
p,,$$t(t
,P(,p$,p
,P(tL$t
,t(,LP$PL,Pt(t$
$$PLTt
Px,PL
,$P(,LPL$T
tlTtT
x,p$HP
TPp,p
PP$,$
xPp,tL
tTtt($,(H
0t,$,$,L
TttPLPt
TtLxPpPtP
Pp,H,p
(t(tH
PPPL,t
pH,$P
PtL,PH
Tt($,L,LP
,Pp,$P(
PPH,p$t,tLP,$$t
tLP$p,tLtPtLP
PHtPpt
0Q0T1
PH,p,Lt,
TP(xHP
,t$PtT
$T$,HP
,p,$,$
xTtLtPH
Pt,0tT
xt(xPL$
PtPpTH,LPt(H
$PxPL
P,PL,tL
,$tx,$t,p,tpttLt,
TtPtp
Ptpx,
tPpPPLt
T,p,$t
TtTHx
Pptx,
TtLtPxP,x,L
,L,x0H(,tT
t($tLP
Ttx,L,t(tL
,HtLx
xPp\P(tLt
PtHPp,px,HTtl
ttL,H,$,p,tP
Pt$PPLt(P(PTtLPPt(t(TP,LP
t$PPL
,t$,tLP,p
P$tPLPP
p330-1
ftsTitleOverride
Telecommunications (page 1)
ftsTitle
Alexander Graham Bell. Bell's interest in transmitting the sound of the human voice grew out of his research into speech mechanics while training teachers for the deaf.
Telecommunications (1 of 4)
The transfer of information by wire or by radio waves is the basis of telecommunications, which is now one of world's biggest and fastest-growing industries. Currently, the most important systems are the telephone, the telegraph, telex, facsimile, and information systems based on the telephone or television.
Today it is possible to send information in different forms - telephone conversations, data and images of documents - around the world in seconds.
Letters have long been the principal form of communication over a distance. By the 17th century in Britain letters and official dispatches were carried by stagecoaches. The recipient paid for the cost of the letter until the introduction of postage stamps in 1840, the first of which was the British 'Penny Black'. For a penny, paid by the sender and registered by fixing a stamp on the envelope, the Royal Mail undertook to deliver a letter weighing not more than half an ounce (about 14 grams) anywhere in the country. Before the penny post, 82 million letters a year were sent, but within 30 years the number had risen to 917 million. Other countries soon followed suit with their own postage stamps.
Telegraphy
Efficient as the 19th century postal system was, a quicker method of communication was needed, particularly to coordinate the movements of the rapidly growing railways. The answer was the electric telegraph. This resulted from the work of a number of pioneers, following the publication by the Danish physicist Hans Christiaan Oersted (1777-1851) of his discovery that a magnetized needle could be deflected by an electric current flowing in a wire.
The electric telegraph was put into a practical form by two Englishmen, Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-75) and William Cooke (1806-79), who were granted a British patent in 1837. The following year the American inventor Samuel Morse (1791-1872) - in partnership with Alfred Vail (1807-59) - devised the Morse code, in which individual letters of the alphabet and digits are represented by different sequences of dots and dashes. This enabled messages to be sent using a single circuit at a rate of 10 words a minute. The operator tapped a key to send the message as a series of electrical impulses. At the other end it was printed out as pen marks on paper tape and decoded. However, the pen was soon replaced by a sounder when it was found that operators could decode messages faster by hearing the sounds of the pen making dots and dashes than by reading the marks on paper.
In 1851 the first telegraph cable was laid across the English Channel, and the first transatlantic cable was laid in August 1858, although it soon failed. In 1866 a more successful cable was laid, and by 1872 the majority of the world's great cities were in contact with one another by telegraph. Telegraphy remained the principal form of telecommunication until just before World War I, when the telephone began to take over.
* AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* COMPUTERS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
--11-,
-1-1-
11-1Y
11111
Y1-11-
--1-11-1-
1111-
-----
1111-1
~11U1-1-
1U1U1-
U11-1-
--1U^
1111-
--1--
--1--
--11-1-
11-1-1--
1111-
---1-
-11-1
--Y11
-1-1-
111111
-,1Y1--
1--1-
1-11U1
1---Y1
-11--
1--1-
1U111--
-1,-1--
-1U11
11U1-1-1U
1111-
1-1-1
-,11--1-
--111-11
111U1
1U11-
-11U1Z
-1-1U11
111--
-11U1
11111U
1111-
^U111
-11111-
U1--1
111U1
-111--
1-11-111
-1---
1111----
Y111-1
-1-11-11
111-1-
111--11U
111-1-
--1-1
U1U--^
11-11-11
111-^
11U11
111U11
1-1U1
-1--1
1U1-1
1U11U
1-11-
111-1
U11-1
-1-1--
-1--1-Y
-11-1
--1-1
11111
1-1-111-
1111-
1-1-Y1
-111-1
-11111-
--1-1-
1-1U1
1-11-
11U111-
---1-
11-11-
U1-1U
11-1--
-^-111-
11---
1-1-1U
11U11
-11--1
1111U
11-111-1--1
-11-11
U1--1
--111
1-11-
11-1-1
1U1U1
11-1-1U1
-1--1
Z111U
11-^U
1--11-
1U-11-1
U1-11
--1--
1U11-
-Y111
-1-111-1
-11-Y
1U1-1
111--
1--11
-11-1
11Y11
-1111
U1--1-1--1
-----
-1-11--
1--11U-
1-1--11
U-1-1
111--1-
1-U111
1-11~
1-1--1
-1--1
1U-1--1
1-11-
1-1-1
-1-11
1-1U1
-1-1-
U11U1
-1--1
p330-2
Early telephone subscribers had to rely on human operators to connect their calls by means of a plug-and-socket arrangements. The first practical automatic switching device was invented in 1889 by Kansas City undertaker, Almon B. Strowger. Fearing that his local operator - the wife of a business rival - was diverting his calls, he devised an automatic exchange - a 'girl-less, wait-less' telephone.
The Strowger system proved so successful that it formed the basis of subsequent mechanical exchanges. A series of electrical pulses, produced by means of a dial, caused a contact arm to rise and rotate through a corresponding number of steps, so making the desired connection. It was not until the 1960s, with the emergence of electronic exchanges, that the dominance of the Strowger system began to be challenged, and some Strowger exchanges are still in use today.
Telecommunications (2 of 4)
Telephones
Transmitting the sound of the human voice required further inventions - the microphone and the receiver. A microphone controls the current in a circuit operating a receiver, which generates a sound similar to that received by the microphone. The first successful telephone was made by the Scottish inventor Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) in 1876.
The introduction of automatic exchanges early in the 20th century made possible a huge growth in the telephone system. However, a number of technical problems remained. Because even high-quality metal conductors show electrical resistance, it is difficult to send a signal over a long distance. For this reason, amplifiers - known as repeaters - had to be installed at regular intervals to compensate for the loss of power. The cost of providing and maintaining repeaters was considerable, and long distance telephony only became effective once long-lived repeaters had been developed.
During the 1960s electronic exchanges began to be introduced. Dialed numbers are stored electronically and routed to their destination automatically and at great speed. Such exchanges have few moving parts, less noisy lines because there are no mechanical switches, and can operate quickly enough for push-button rather than dial phones to be used.
Multiplexing
In the early days of telephony, each subscriber telephone was connected to the exchange by an individual circuit, and every link between exchanges was achieved by cables transmitting single calls. The result was not only chaotic and unsightly, but also expensive as telephone wires are costly to install and maintain. From 1910, this problem was resolved by the introduction of multiplexing, which allowed more than one call to be sent down the same set of wires at the same time. At its simplest, this is achieved by allocating carrier waves of different frequencies to different calls. These waves are then separated out at the receiving exchange by a tuning arrangement rather like that used in radio sets.
In modern telephony, multiplexing is achieved by pulse-code modulation. The continuous waveform of the human voice is converted into a digital signal by means of sampling at fixed intervals - normally 8000 times a second. These samples are transformed by an encoder into a code that is transmitted in a series of regular pulses and pauses. At the other end, the pulses are separated again into individual conversations, and converted back into a form that is analogous to the human voice so that they can be heard on the telephone. In this method, numerous calls can be transmitted on the same line by using the gaps between the samples.
* AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* COMPUTERS
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Telecommunications (page 2)
ftsTitle
NNHNNH
HNNHN
NNHNNHNNH
NNHNNHNN
NNH N
NNHNNH
HNNHNNH
NNHNNHNNH
NNHNNHNN
NNH N
HNNHN
NNHNNHNNH
NNHNNHNN
NNHNN
NNH N
NNH N
NNHNNHNNH
NNHNNHNN
HNNHNNHNNH
NNHNNH
NNH N
NNHNNHNNH
NNHNNHNN
p330-3
ftsTitleOverride
Telecommunications (page 3)
ftsTitle
A spray of polymer optical fibers. Optical fibers have a core of perspex and a thin outer covering of polymer. The fibers illustrated are used for lighting, but those used in optical cables to transmit telephone calls are similar.
Telecommunications (3 of 4)
Telephones
Optical cables
An even better way of transmitting more calls along the same line is to replace electrical currents with microwaves or with light. The amount of information that can be carried is higher for high-frequency carrier waves, but very-high-frequency carrier signals are quickly weakened by ordinary wires. Both microwaves and light produced by lasers offer much higher frequencies, with the capacity to handle thousands of calls along a single link. Cables made of optical fiber, which can transmit laser light over long distances without loss, are now replacing the old copper cables. Optical cables are cheaper to make, tough, flexible, and immune to electrical interference. Each glass fiber in the cable can handle thousands of telephone calls at once, each one at a different frequency.
Optical cables
An even better way of transmitting more calls along the same line is to replace electrical currents with microwaves or with light. The amount of information that can be carried is higher for high-frequency carrier waves, but very-high-frequency carrier signals are quickly weakened by ordinary wires. Both microwaves and light produced by lasers offer much higher frequencies, with the capacity to handle thousands of calls along a single link. Cables made of optical fiber, which can transmit laser light over long distances without loss, are now replacing the old copper cables. Optical cables are cheaper to make, tough, flexible, and immune to electrical interference. Each glass fiber in the cable can handle thousands of telephone calls at once, each one at a different frequency.
Optical cables
An even better way of transmitting more calls along the same line is to replace electrical currents with microwaves or with light. The amount of information that can be carried is higher for high-frequency carrier waves, but very-high-frequency carrier signals are quickly weakened by ordinary wires. Both microwaves and light produced by lasers offer much higher frequencies, with the capacity to handle thousands of calls along a single link. Cables made of optical fiber, which can transmit laser light over long distances without loss, are now replacing the old copper cables. Optical cables are cheaper to make, tough, flexible, and immune to electrical interference. Each glass fiber in the cable can handle thousands of telephone calls at once, each one at a different frequency.
* AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* COMPUTERS
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
lHlH$
$$,$P$$
H$H,H
H$,$H
H$,$H
P$P$HH
P$$H$H
H,HH$
$H$$ll
HH$H$,
H$$HH
H$H$H
$HH,HH
H$HH$HH
HH,HH
$$HH$H
,H$,$$H
$$P$H
$$,$,H$Hl
$PHH,H$H,
H$,HH,
$H$$,
,$H$H
$H,ll
H$PH,
HHlH$l
$$H$$H,
$$H$P
H$H$$,
H$HH$$H,
$$H$$
$HH$$H$H$H
llHll
lHH$$H
HH$,H$H$
HH$$H$H$H
H$$H$$P$
HH$$H,H$lP
H,$H$
lHH,H
H$$,$$
$$P$$
,H$$H$PHl
PHH$$
$$H$l
lHHll
H$H$$H
HHPH$$
PHH$H,H
$H$H$$
HHl,H$
H$HH$
PHH$H,
H$$H$HH$
,tlP
P$H$$
P$$H$HH
PH$$x
HH,H$
$$,ll
HH,H$$H
lt,H$P
HH$,$$P$
$HH$,
HPH$$H
$H$H$$
P$H$$
$,P(HP
ll$,H$$
H,H$H
$HPp,
,HHlHH
HH$$H,lHH
lt$l$
llPH$
$,$$,$,H$H
LH$H$H,
ltLt$$HH
,$$HH
H$H$H
P$,$,$PHH
ltlH$
lH,$,
PH$H,
$HH$P
l$$P$,
PHH,$$
P$$P$
$Pt$,
,H$H$$H,
lPlHH
lHH,$
$H,$H
$$H,H
$$t$,
,H$H$l
H,$$HH$PH
HlHHllH
HH,HHl
HHll$,l
tlPHll
HH$H$$
,HlHH$$
P$HH$
HPH$$
ll$$H
$PHH$
$H,HH
$H$$P
H$,H,$P
$$HH,$
tll,$PH$
$$H,H
HH$tPHl
P$HH,$HH
HH,HH
$$H$t
lPll$
H$H$H$
$$t(H$$
H$$HH$
$$Pl,
,HH$,$H
$HtHP$
H$$H$$,$$
Hlt$ll
H$H$H$$H,H
H$HH$
$$,H,$,
$H$H$
P$H$$H
$$HltHH
P$$H$
$$P$,
P$tll
P$$,$$HH$
PHH,H$
H,$H,H,
lH$lHlP
H$H$$
$$HH,
$,$$H
H$HH$H$P
$H,H,HH$l
HH$HH
$H$$,$
,l$H$
$$,$$
$$l$$
H$$P$HH
$$PlP$
$H$,$$,$$
,H$Pl$
tlHPH$$
H$H$H$$H$H
l$$ll
Hll$l
ltllHllP
,$H,H
$H$$H
t$$lHH
H$HHllHl
lltll
$HH$$
H$$HH
$HH$Pt
tPllHl
$HH$$H$P
$t$H$
$llHH$H
H$$H$
Hl,$$
tllPl
,HH$H$$,
H$,Hll
H$$H$
llHtl
$H$$H$$
lH$$l$Hl
$$H$$H
$$HH$H
HH$$H$ll,$
ltllt
H$H$$H
$$H$l
$$H,l$H
lHHlt
,$H$$H
HlH$HH$tl
H,H$HH$HH
H$lHH$$H$$
HH$$l
HH$H$
H$$tl
tlPpltl
H,HH,l
HHP$,
lPplPll
$$H$HH,H
H,$$lHPl
lHllHPl
$,$t$H
lH$t$
HllHll,l
$llHt$
$Pl$H$$
,H$$H
$$HlH$$
$ll,$
tlt$HH
H$P$t$$,$,
$PPH$H
ltllP
HHlH,
lHl$l$,
$Ht$H
ltHlP
tPpHP
H$$,$l
tlltHltt
llHPHlHP
l$Hl$H
$lHH,
,l$$H$
tllPlH,
t$$P$$
l$$,H$HP$
tltllP
$H,tL
HH,H$
l$H$$
lPPH,
tlPHtlt
tl,lH
$Pl$$
tlltllt
$tllHPl
HPltl
Hltll
H,HH$$H
$$Pl$
$tltP
H,$Pl$l
$$HH$$
ltllt
$$,H$
l,llH,
H$H$$
$P$Pl
$,lH$$
l$$lH
HPlltl
lH,ll
PH$l$
llH$H
$,H,H
PllPll
$PH$,
$HH,HH,$$
HHl$$
$t$H$
l$lPl
$H$H$H
tH$Hl$P
tH$H$
l$l$$H$H$H
tPl,H
$H,l$,l
P$H$,
$HlHH
lltll
$l$$HPl$
Hll$t
lHtllt
lHHlH
$$HH,,
HH,l$HP
HH$Hl
$$lH$ll
lH$tH$$
ltl$$
llHll
H$,l$Hl,l$
lt$ll
$,HlH
HH$$H
lHHll
$,l$$l
lHH$H
H$$H$$
,$$t$$HH
HtllH
l$$l$
HH$$H$
$lHHt$$H$
H$$Pl
lH$H$$tl$
Pl$HH$HllH
$HHtl
lH$lt$
ltllt
t$,$H$
$$Pl$
$,$Pl
l$,H$
$H$$H
lltll$P
Plltl
H$l$,
$tllH$
$$HPP
H,H$ll$H$H
H$$HHll
tPllH
HH$ll
t$$,$
HHltlH
$l$H$
$l,$H$
H$,$tl
H$H,t
$,$$H$
HtlH$
H$HH$
lH$$H
H$H$$
$H$,$H
$$HH,H$
,H$Hl
llt$l
$H$$l,$H$$
H$P$$P
ll,$H
HllHl
llH$P
ltH$lt
,H$H$$
,H$tl
$PHHP
HH$,$$
HllH$l$H
Plltl
Plt$ll,t$l
lHtll
PHPHH
PlH$HH
HHtlt
$l$$lHH
$llH$$
$,H$l
HHlHH
H$tll
$$H$$
tHH$H
$$H$H$$H
$$HlHH$
$$HH$$H$
H$$,H
$HH$$,$
HHlH$
lH$H$
lHH$$
,lH$tlt
lltll
HtllHH,H
H$$H$P$$H
H$H$$
$$,$$
$H,$HH$
,H$Hlt
HH$llH
lltll
PlH,H
H$$,$
PHH$H
tllttll
lltll
H,H$H
$$tHH
ltllt
lHllH
lPltl
HH$HH,HH,
ltltt
lHH$Hl
HlH$$
$H$$,
H$HH,
H$H,H
ltPltHll
lltll
$,$,HH$
$H$$H
tHPlP
Ht$H$
$,H$H,H$$,
$,H$H$$P
llHPl
ltllt
$$H$H
H$H$H$
$HH,H
HH$H$H$H
llH,$
$PH,$
P$P$PH,H,H
$lH$,lHH,
,H$,H
H$$P$H
P$$,H$PlH
P$,l,lP
ltlltltL
l$H$$
,$,$,$,$
$PH,H,H
$PH$,
lltpt
ltllt
lH,H$
$,H$$P
H,$H$H
,$H,HH,H$H
l,HHPtl
Ht$$H$$H$
,$$,$
P$$H$P
lHHlHll
Ptllt
ll$H$l
l,llH$
llH$H$HH$H
P$$P$$
lPlPl
lPltl
,tplH
H$HH$
$P$,H$HH$
,$$HH$H,tH
P$P$H
H$lPlt
$PH$l
$H,$HH$H
PHHtH,H
tlHtl
Pltll
lPltlt
ltlHH
$$H$$H$
H$H$H$
$H$$P$$H$
,H,$P
H$H,$
,$P$,
PH,,HH
lHH$$
lt$H$H
HH$Hl
,HH$H$
$,pPt
H$,$H$,H,H
lH$HHl
$$H$HH
$$H$H
$$P$$
HP$HH
lPllHP
HHlH$
H$HH$H$H
l$lH$T
H$$,PH
t(HH$
l$H$$
lPltll
HH$HH$HH
P$HtH$
P$$,H
$$H$,
H,H,$
Pll$tHt
HPtlltl
$,$H,
HH,$P$,$
HP$H$H
l$HH$
H$H$H$$H$$
H$$H$H
$$tlt
PH,$$
$,$$P$,$$H
$$t$,$,H
lHHllP
l,lltl
$$H$H
H$$H$H
$PHHP
$$H$$HH$$
$$,HPH,
llH$H
$,$H$$H$$
H$$H$HH$H
H$H$,$$H$
,H,LH,HPH,
$,$,$H$,
,$,$$P(HH
H,$H$l,
P$H$$HH
HPHl,HlH
ltllt
l$l$$t
$HPH$H
tH,HP
,$$,$$H,$,
,H$H$P
HtHHt$
H$$H$$
HHll$
tHHPH
H$H$,
,H$$t$
$,l$H
H$HH$$
l$HH$
P$$P$$,
$$PHH
P$,$H$H$$H
$HtplH
tLltl
l$PH$
H$$HP$$
PtH,$P
tltllt
H,tl$$
H$HH,$$H$$
H$HH$H
HHPH$$
P$P($P$
$P$,$,
H,$H$H$PP$
P$$tH
lltlltllP
$$H$$
HH$$H$H
llHlHl
,$,$$
H$H$HH
lHltLl
llttll
$$H$H
H$$HH$,
$,H$$,$t$,
$H$H$$H
,HH$HH$
Plttlltl
HH$P$$
,H$PHH
tltlltl
$$Hl$H
H$tlH
$$H$HH$t
lH$H$
Hl$H$$
lltltllt
$,HHPlt
$Ht$$
H,l$H
HlHll
lH$$t
H,lH$
lHll$l
H$H$$H$H
$,H,$,
HPlHlltl
$$H$H$$
$$H$H
$$,$H,H
,$$H$HH$,H
H$$H$$H$H$
H,$P$
t$H$,$H$
$$ll$$H
PlHll$
$P,L,P
llPlt
PllPplltlt
$HP$$H
lHllH$H$$H
l$llHl
H$$P$H
ltlltllP
tHll$
H$$H$$
p330-4
ftsTitleOverride
Telecommunications (page 4)
ftsTitle
Satellite dishes with parabolic reflectors. The aerial bowl reflector has an adjustable mounting, so that it always points at the satellite (in space). The parabolic dish directs received radio waves to a sub-reflector suspended above it, which reflects the waves in turn down a hole in the dish to the receiver station.
Telecommunications (4 of 4)
Telephones
Microwaves and satellites
Radio waves at very high frequencies - microwaves - may be focused into beams and used for the transmission of telephone messages over middle-range distances. Unlike other radio waves with longer frequencies, microwaves are not reflected by the ionosphere and so cannot be used for long-distance telecommunications unless they are transmitted via satellites. The first effective telecommunications satellite was Telstar, launched in 1962. Orbiting the Earth in 150 minutes, the satellite was used to transmit a single television link or a limited number of telephone calls for 20 minutes in each orbit.
Telecommunications satellites now orbit the globe high above the Equator in 24 hours. By this means the satellites are always in the same location relative to stations on Earth and can therefore be used constantly. Satellite telecommunications are largely regulated by half a dozen international organizations, the most prominent of which is the consortium Intelsat, with nearly 120 member states and some 180 stations. Each of its satellites - numbering 13 in 1989 - can link over 30 000 telephone calls and 60 television channels.
Radio waves are used in mobile telephones in cars; these are commonly called cordless telephones, but more accurately referred to as cellular radio. Because the number of users is greatly in excess of the number of radio channels available for this service, the area over which cellular radio operates is divided into cells in each of which there is a low-power radio transmitter whose operations are confined to the users in its area. By this means the number of calls on the system can be multiplied by the number of cells. Calls between cells are transmitted via a central control.
Data transmission
Telephones are not restricted to communication by voice. Increasingly they are being used to send data from computer to computer, and images of documents by facsimile transmission (fax). In many Western countries telephones are widely used to send information for display on a TV set. These services are known generically as viewdata. They offer a great range of information, which is stored centrally on a computer database and covers topics as varied as stock-market prices, sports and general news, holiday information, job advertisements, weather forecasts and entertainment guides.
For transmission of computer data, a modem - modulator-demodulator - is needed at each end of the line. A modem converts the digital signals from the computer into a form that can be transmitted by telephone and reconverts them at the other end. Provided the telephone lines are good enough, portable computers can now be connected up to the telephone system anywhere in the world, and used to send information elsewhere. Where lines are poor, telex systems - the descendants of the telegraph - survive. These send images of documents along the line, letter by letter, to be printed out at the far end.
Facsimile transmission - fax - is one of the fastest growing of the new telephone services. It has been available for many years - particularly in Japan, where the language, with its many symbols, makes telex too complex. Fax has only really begun to grow rapidly, however, with the availability of much cheaper machines. Fax works by scanning a sheet of typed or handwritten material, and turning the result into a digital signal that can be sent over the telephone network to a designated fax machine somewhere else. It is by far the quickest way to transmit images of drawings or typed documents.
The telephone network can also be used to send electronic mail from terminal to terminal, and to replace the use of cash for purchasing goods. Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is a system for automatically debiting a customer's bank account and transferring money to that of the store, without handling cash, checks or credit cards. EFT is still in its infancy, but offers great economies over the existing paper-laden systems and is likely to grow.
* AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* COMPUTERS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1U110
T11T1T
U1T1U1U
01011U
U10U11U1T1
1T11011T1U
11U1U1U
T1101U10U
P11U0101U1
T10-0
0U1U11U
0101-1U1U1
0U1U1T11U1
T101U1
1U1T10U1
U01U011U
011T1-U1U
01101T1U01
U11,U01U1U
1U01101U10
1U1y1TU1U1
UUT11U10
U11U101U
U011U
T1011L11Q1
1-01)01101
T110-
1U1T1U
011U11U1U1
U1U0y10
11U0101T1U
1U11T
T1T1U11T1U
01U101U
011U11U
11T10U1U
01U11T1U01
U0UTU11T1y
U1U1T
1U1U11y11y
1T1U0U
Q01U101U10
U1U1U
1T11T1U11U
T11U01U110
01UU1U10U1
y1x11T1T1U
10U1T11U
10U11T 1
01U101U
T1U1y0
1T1T11U
U11y1U1y11
TU110U10U
U011T1U01U
10U11T
11T1U0
U1T11U1U1U
0U11T1U1U1
01U10U11U1
1T11T
U11-U1T110
U01U-
101U1101-1
T11U1U1UU1
1UU110U
1T1U1U
0U110
U10U1U11L1
1U1101U
11y1U0
1UU01U1T1y
1T1U11T1
1U0U010U11
U11U1T1T1U
U101011-,
1U1U1T10
01U0U1U10U
1U1U1U11U1
1U1U1UU11U
U011U1101U
01101U
0U1U11U11U
11U01y01y1
01yU01U0
U-U101U10
1P0UTTUx
0U,1T110
01U01U1T1x
1U1U1U1U1
U1U101U0U1
11UUT
U1U1U11U1U
1U01U1U
01U1011U1U
T1U11U
,11,U0T1T
1T1U1U0y
1UU1U11T11
U11U10U11U
10U11T1U0
U1U11U1U1U
0U1Uy1U1U1
y01y11y1U1
011T11U11T
1U11U
01T11T
0101-0-1-
T11,1
T-T10y1U1
U011U0
T1U1U01U01
U11T11U11U
1U11U1T1U0
1y1U11y11U
U11U11U11x
1U1U11U1T
01U11U101U
-10101-
-0U10y11y1
TUU1U0y11y
11y11U1U
1y1U11U0
UU1U11U10U
1UU1U1U01U
1P1UU1y1U0
y1U1U
U11U0110U1
10U11T
1U1T1y1U
0U1y11
1U11T1UU1U
1U1U1U1T
T11U1T11U1
0U1U101U1T
U10U0U10U1
U1U1Q01U
T1U10
U1U01U1U11
U1y1U1x1U1
U011U11U10
U1010
0U11U10
10U0U0U1T1
U1U11U110U
1T11U11U1U
1T11U110U1
U0U10y1U1y
1y1y11
1UU01y1xU1
y11U1U1U1U
U11T11U11U
11y01U1U1U
U101T
T1U1U
U11U1U1U0U
1U11TUU1y1
U1U1U
U0U101U
0U110U11T
01U11-011-
-T1Q1
11U110U11
010U1U01U
UU11TUU1y1
1U1U1y11U1
U1U11U1U0
U1U1U
U110U
P10U0U1T1U
T1y1TUU1UU
1U01T
U11U11011U
1UU1U
1U11y10y1U
0-1--
(-,1T
Q1TUU11U
11U11U110
U1U10U11T
1U1U11U0
1U11U1UU1U
TU1U1U11T1
1TUU1U11U1
U110U1-1T1
--11-
U1101
U0U10U
0y1U1T1U1T
U101U1T1U1
01U11U01UT
U10U11U11U
11x11U1yU1
U11U0U110U
0U10U
1xUT11
U11U1UU11T
20y1U1U1U
U1U0U11U11
1UT1y1
0U11U11U
011U10
01101T1U10
1T1T1
U010T1
U,0U0
T,1,1T101
P10U1x
11y10U11U1
0U110U1U11
U1T11T1U
U11U11U1U1
U11T1U10
0U10U0U10U
U00U01T1T
U,T-0
1T1UT
U11U1U1U
T11U1T1U01
1y1UyU0
01UU1TUU1T
1U0UU
U1U1UU
-11-11U
U01T0Q
00U0T101
T0U10T1
P1,1T10Q
-T11x
11y11U1T11
0U1U1T11U1
U110U1U0
T11U11y1U
y1U1UU11y
01-,U
101T1T1T1T
1T]U0
T11T1U0U01
P1yU11U
U1T1101U
U1011U11U1
U1U1T1U
U1U1U1T1U1
1U1U11U1U1
T11T10T
U10T0y01
0U01T1
T10-01-
-0U01UU0y1
U101U1T11U
11U1U11U1U
U0U110y1U1
U1UU1U
10U11T11U1
T1U1U11T1U
11U11U
1T10T0U
1T11T1
,U10T11T1T
10P100
-T1T1T0U01
U0Q00-T0-
0U0U0U
1T1U1U
U101U
U10U1U
U1U1y01U1U
11U1U
01U1U10U-
T10U101x11
0T1T1T-
U0U00U01T1
T0U0U0U0TU
T01U10U10
P1T1P0U0
Q0U,U
UU11U0U0U1
U10U1U11U1
T11U101U1y
U11U110U
T1U01U11U
1T1U\U0U1T
10U0U10y0y
1T10U1T
1T,101T
00U9T
1x0U0
101T1U11T
1U11U11U11
U11U1U11U0
11U11U0U1U
1y11yU1y1
11U11U0U
U11U10U
0U1U11
0y0T0
U10U1U0010
10UT10U101
U0T010T10T
1U010Q0
P1T0-0
0-T110U,
T-T1UT
U1y11U110U
10U11U
U1U1U11U11
y1x1y1
1y1Uy1y1
U1T1U
U101U11-01
-U-yT
U090U0U1
T]U01UTU01
0U10U0T11T
-P11TUT10U
0U0U0
TU0yU11
UTU1U11U11
U01U1U
U01U11U
U11y0
1U0y1U11U1
T1U11-
01T10U1TUU
010T1TU0UT
UU0T1
10y0U01T0y
01T110U01
TU0,-0U0T1
-0U,1
1TUy1U1x11
y01U11U110
U1U11y11y1
U1UU1y1Uy1
U]T1UTU1U0
U1T01x1T1U
UTUT11T0U0
10T10y1U0U
U0U0U1
1Q0T1yT
TUU11U11U1
1U11U1U10
1U1U0
U1UU1y1yU1
y1U1U1U1U1
U1U1U1011U
11U10U1U
01U010y8
U011T10U]x
1T1x1x]U0P
1y0U0U0U\U
\U,1P
10T101
U0,1T01
01T1TUU11U
1U11U11U10
U1U11U1T11
y1UTU1y1UU
1U1y11UU1y
11y11U11U
U1U11U11U
U1U01-
-1-10
U0]UTUU0U0
T10UUTUU10
y0y1T01UTT
0y1x]y0UTy
y01T1T1
10U00U
10U,U0T1T
P,U,U0
1T1T1U11
U1U11U
1U1y11y
1y1U1U11U1
U11U1U1y1U
11P1P
U0-0U
1T1U0UUT
]U\U1y1y0U
\U10T11
1y1x1
y0U\U]
U0U110
0U01U01U
101T1T1T
U011y1y
1U1U0
U1U1U1U1U1
1y1T11y1T1
yU1U01UU
U11T11T11U
U0U0U1
01U\UUT1
0U1TU0
U1U0y10UUT
Uyx1x1y0U0
UU0y0UT
1T01T1
T01T01
1T0T101T1T
U,T10Q0-0
U10y0-
1U11TU1Uy1
0U1U110U1y
11y1U1
0U1UU01y1U
1U1011U
Q01U,U0
UU0y1x]T1
1UTUTUUT1
U10y0UUxU1
T1y\y8y0y
1y9x1TT
U101TU0U1x
90U1T10T,U
1T0U00U0U
0101T01
P1,T1
-01xy1
1UT1U11y1y
1YUU1
1U1U1U1
1U1U1U11U1
1T0-0T-1
1T-10
U010U10U-
]Ty8U
U]T1y0
T]T10U01y0
TUTUTUTy1
UUTy0U11
U0U1T1U10U
1\U1T10UTT
1T01T1U
1T10U0T10T
P10U0
1TUT1T-0Q0
T1TUU1U1U1
11U1y1
U011U
U1y11y1U1-
T-T1,
1TU01T1
U\1U\
y]TUU0y1x1
y0y10U\UU\
1y0UT
10Uy0U1TU0
U01U01T011
U00T0U1T1
0UT1T01,U0
T10U,11
-0U1xU
1x1U1y0U
T1U1U1U1U1
U1y1U
1y1U1U1U1U
11U1U11UU1
1T10U
1T1-0y]
1Q0U10
y1TUU
\UUx9y0U1y
0y0yUT1x1y
1x]y0y0y0U
0U10U01T1x
1Ty],U0y0U
1U0TUU01y0
0U00100U1T
U,U1,10U0
T,U1P0P1P0
U0Uy1UU1U1
1U1U1U
x11y1U11yU
1y1UU0y1
U11U1T11U
,T10U,U10y
1U0101
0T1U0-1
9x]U\y0
x1UTUUTUTU
T1x1yT1x1U
Ty0yT1y0y0
y0y0U110U1
TU]1U\U1T1
UT0U0U1x]0
U11T0y01UT
U1T1U0]T10
1T,U0U0U
UT011T11
1T1UU1UT11
U1U11U11y1
y11y11y1U1
y1U1U10U11
U1U0U
U101-
0U1T1
T1,T10
U1T11T1,U0
U0U0U0U,11
T1U,U01
1T11-1U0U
T1U1101T1
]x1xyTy9x
1U0UTU0UU0
UTUx1
y1xUU0y
0y1x1y0U0y
UT1TUT0UUT
T1T101x1
y0y1T
0y0y0y0yT1
1T1T,10U01
U,U00
0,U,1P0U0P
0Q01T
1U1U11UUT1
1U1UU11U1y
11y1Y1x11
1U11U1U
U1U11-
U0-01
01y0Q
T-0U0
U0U0-0U101
T110U
11T1-
011T11
0U0U0U1
]x9UTU1T
Uy1TU\UU1
UUT]TU\U0y
x1x1y0y\UU
x1y8UTU0y0
y0y9yU
1UT1T]
y0y9x1TU
]0UT1010T1
T1T0UUP1U,
T11y1U11U1
1y1y1
1y1U1U11U0
11U1U
U0P10
0U0U10U,1U
1y]U0Q
1T1T1
U0101U0U0U
01-0U10
1T1T11U01
0UUT1y0U]
TU\1T
y1xUyTUUTU
U0U\y
1UUTUT
]y0y\y
x]x1x
y]T]x1U]T1
T1U1T1T0
1T10UT0
T-T0-0-x0
1x0U,
1U11U
U0U1U11x
y1y1y1y1UU
1U1U1U
U01U11
,1T1-TUT-
01U0-
U11T1Q
U01T101
U011T11
U010U1T1
T10U11T1U0
U0UTU1
T1U01T1T10
0y1x1xUx9
x1T1x]UT]T
U]T]x1
x1yU\UT1y0
UTUUx1x1x1
y0UUT]y0yy
8y1xyU
]x1U1x]T1
1U001T10U1
T1P1010U0
1P1T0Q0
x10P0T1P1T
U10U11U1U
U11U11y
U1U11U11U1
1U1U1U1U11
T1P0y
,U011T,U00
U01U0U1T
1,10-00Q0U
1U,1T
11-T1
0U1T101U0U
101U10U01T
1101T11U01
9T10U101U0
1U1U01T1
1TUT]x1x9x
1yTU1TU1
T1TU1
UTUUTUT]x1
1x1y0U
]xUT]
UT1yU
y0yT9P1UTU
0U01T
1P1010T1
T1P0U1-,
T101P1x-T1
P11P0-01TU
U1T1U1U10
U1-1U11U1U
1y0U1P1T
T11U1T10U0
10U01U0U,Q
1U010Q
01T10U011T
10U0y10y0U
UT10U
1T1T1U0
U01U0U1T10
U1T1U0-
y0y9x1
UTU1x1x1U
TU0y\U1
T1U]Ty9TU
1UT]UTU
U0y9UTy1x1
1x1x1y01y0
0U1x1
UU01y0
1TUT]T1T0U
0U10T
T11U00
T-U-T10
1TTQ01T010
-0U1P01
TUU0UTT11
T11U1T
1U01U0U1T1
0x1U0U01TU
0UU1U01U0U
U1T90U011
T10U0110U0
10U1U01U01
1T1U1011T
1T1101T1U0
8y1x1
U\UUx1x9x1
T]U01y0UTU
10UTUUx1TU
UTU1x1
TUTy0
UTU0y0y
1U0UTUU0U1
x1TU]01y01
T18U11T11
T10U81,0U0
11T010T00U
1T1P010U1T
10-0Q
0P10-T1P1P
1,U,10U11U
U1U11U11U1
0y0P1
0U,1T11
TUTUTU1T0P
1T1U10U0U0
1U0UU-
U0-T10
1T110U10U1
T1U0U01U0U
0U0U01U0U1
T1U1T1T101
U01T1y101T
T1y\UTU\y\
Uy1\1y01
U01U0U1
Ux1y\y1x1
0y\U1xU
UxU]T
y8y0UTU0U1
0U10y0
U\U0y1yx1x
10T1T1U0U1
T1U0U0U0T1
T1U01T10U0
U001P1
U0-0Q01T-T
,1T10U,U1U
y1U0U11U
U0U1TUUT10
U-T1U
1T1U0U10T1
T10U0110U0
1U0U0
1T110U,U
UTU10U101U
010U1T101T
11x1T11U01
01T101
U10U0U0U10
1T1T1U0110
U11T1U01U0
UT]U0y1
U1x1yxUTUx
0UTU01y8y
1x1yTU1U0y
8yT]Ux
\Uy0y1
UTUTU
UUTUUTy0UT
UUTUT10U0y
]T1U0U10
1UT0U01
0U010U01x1
T10U010U0U
0U0U1
01U,U01T-0
Q010P010U1
T11T11U11U
1U11U11U11
11U11--
1T10Q0U10
U0U0U10
1TUxUTU
T10y1y10UT
U1T1U0U1T1
0U1T10U0
U0U1U0y11,
U1T1U0U0U0
1T1T1U0U0U
10U01]0U0U
0U1T1T1T11
U011T1U0U0
10U1T1T1T1
101U0U0
0y0y9x1xUT
10U1T11x9y
0U0yT]T
1y0y0U1x9y
UT1TUy
Ty1x1U\U0U
01U0U1x10y
1U01UTU0]U
T11T1U0U1T
1U1T0U
01UTUU0U0T
1T1T101U0T
1T1P0
T1T-U,
,U-0U0T-T1
y,U010U1U
U11U1
11U1UU1U
1U0UU01x1
T1y01U0U1T
U0U1U\U]xU
1U0U\
101U011T1
U10U1011T
U01TU
01U010U11
1U010
U01T1TU10U
181U10U0U0
U1T1U011U1
T101T101T1
T1T11U
UTUT1x1
1U01yT1y0U
11T1y\U0y1
0y0y1x1y0
1x10y01x1T
]UTy0
xUxU]x1
0y0UUT1
x1UT10y1x1
T1TU0UUTUU
0y1T101U10
1T1U01y
0y9x1T1011
0U-T1
T1T,1-TUTU
T,U0U1U1U1
U11U11U1U1
11U11y1U0
U0U0U1
TUUy\U1T1U
0y01T11TUT
UT1T1U0
1U0U10UT1T
9U0U1T1T1T
11T10U10U0
1U1TUT1U0U
01T1U0U01U
1TU10U1TUT
10U]U010U0
101U0U01U1
T1U1U011T1
1T1TUT1U01
y01y0y01T1
Ux1UTUx1
01T1TUT11
UU0UU\UU0y
x9x]xUTUx1
y0y1TUTU\U
T1U010y1
U0U\y9x1U0
1UTUUTU\U
0y10U1T
1T11U-
0U-10
T1T01U0U10
P10y1
1yU1y1y
U11U0U1--
1T11T1
01TU0UTU1x
1010y1x1
U1x1x]T]U0
11T11
U01T1T10U0
11x10
1101T10U10
U11T1T19T1
TU01T1
1T1x110U01
0U10U01T1U
1T1U0U
U0T11T10U1
T11T1U
1xUTUU]x9x
1TUT]U0y9T
UTU0U1T1UU
TUUTU1y01U
1x1T\U1TUU
\y]T]xUTy]
x]T1y1y0
8UUx9y0y0y
1yU0UTUTU]
xyUx1x9xUx
9y0U]Ty9x1
101T11T1TU
001-110-1
T-0U-0Q100
y0y10Q01T
U110y1y1U1
U1U1U11-
P11y1x1UTy
0y0U1T1U0y
T]UyTU
TU10U1T
1U01T1y011
U01U0
0U18U1U0y1
U0U01T18UU
01U10U
010U011T1T
1U0U10U10U
101T110U10
1U0U11U010
U101U0U10
U\UTUT
1y1\UUx1TU
U0U]U]TUTU
0y0y1x1x1T
1U0y0
1UTU1x
\y1T1x1y0U
8y10yTU0y0
yUTUTU
\UT1UUxUUT
U]x]yx1x1
10U1T1T10U
01101U0T1P
1T1Q00y0yy
U1y1U11
T1T101U0U0
U]T1y10y1T
1T10U01TUT
01y0UUTU
1T1T1
U01U0U0
0U010U10y0
]TU9x9T11T
10y10
U0U011T1T1
U0U01U0U10
U10U10U0U1
T1U0U1T101
T0U1T10U1T
1y0y0y1
x1y8y0y1T1
Ty\U1TU\UT
UUT]0UUTUT
18y0UTUT
y1\UU0UT]T
UTUxU]T
Ux1y0y
8UyTUTy0y1
x11xU
Ty1TUxUU\U
xUT1y0U
UT1x1x1y1T
1U0U10
10Q0yx1
T,1,U11U1U
y1U11U01U1
U-01-01
1-1T1T1,0-
11U0U1T1x1
yTUTU0U1T
0U10UU]TUT
y0U1x9UUx
T11x1U8y01
1UUT1]T]UT
]T1y0y0]x1
1T]1T1TU0U
1T1T10U1T1
U010U10U01
10U10U10U0
U101U\U0U0
1T1U11T1UT
1T10U0U
]T]UTUU\U0
1T]UTUUTU
TU0y0
0]y1y1\UT1
xy]TU\y1y0
\y0y1xUU0
1Ux1UU8UUT
]TUxyU\y]U
T]Ux1yx]
0yTy1x1y8
y\UTUTU]T1
0y8y]T]UTU
10U110U0U0
1TU0y1T1U0
U11U10
1U-10
U0-0U101U1
T1T1T]
y10UTUUTU
UUT]T]TU5x
10U0U1T1y
0U1UU0
x9T1T]T1TU
1\10UUTUU
101UTU1x9T
1U\1]1x1U0
01U01U10U1
T110U1T10U
1U0U0U0U01
T110U0U01U
101U1U01T1
U0U1T1U8y1
y0y1x9y0
y1xUTUyTU]
Ty9U0
\U\Ux1
y1x9UTUTU0
yx1x10y1yT
U0UTUTUT1
xUxUyTUU
1TyTUTyUx]
1yTUUx1
U0y1xUU
\yUTUyx1y\
y1x]TU\Ux9
x1x1T]T
0U110U1T
11-01U,1U
01,U,10
1U1U11
1U1U10-1TU
U010U101
x1T10
x1y1T
U1T9x9x9y0
1T1T]U11x9
0UU]0U\1x1
1]0U\1U
T1\UT1y1T1
0yT1U0
1T1U01U0U
01U0y1T1
U1T10UTU1x
1U8y1T1T11
U01TU1
T1y8UU01y0
1]TUT]U]y0
1x10y0yx1
\U1x1y0UUT
UUx9x1yT9y
1yU\U\U]yx
UT]TU]TU
yTUT]TU8y1
UT]T]y8y\
Ty0y8yU
1yUyTUTyy\
U]xy1
0UUT]UUTU
]UU0y9x1TU
10T1U0
1U0U0U01U0
1T-T1T10U-
01y10
U11U1U-0U
1U01U1T
1U0U1U0U1U
0UUT1x90U]
0yx9yy]y
UT]Ty1x
9y1T]T
]y10UUT1T1
U0UT1
1T1U1T1
01x1T1TU\1
y01]TU01U0
1T1\UT
1\10U1
1T10U01U01
TUU01
1T]UU10U0y
0U1T1T]U01
0y1T1U01U0
1x9yTUT
1TUT9y0
1x11Ux9
y1UTU1\U
UTU\TUUT]0
TU10]1TUU0
y1x1x91x1y
0y1xU0y1x1
0y0UTUU1T]
U1x1x1U8UU
TUT1y0
x90y1x1TUx
1UTUUTU\U0
U0]UT1TUU0
U1U10y8U1U
1U01]011U0
1T10U101P1
0U,0-U11U1
1U1y1U1U
101T11T1U0
UT]UTU]
TU]y\U
Yx1x1y
UU]T1T1U
0yU8y
1T10U1x10
10U0U1T1y1
]10yU0y1x1
T1y0]U1y1x
11y1T11x1y
1x1U0y01U0
1y0y0U1T1y
01U0U1T10T
1T1T1T1TUU
0U0U1U0U0U
0UT1T1
y0]x1
TUT11x11T1
]x11U010
xUU0U01U11
y01U0U\U0]
yTy1x1
0U\UUT11T]
U09T1U01U1
T1U10U0U0U
0U0UU0y1T]
T1T1U011T1
1x9UU01x11
T10y9x11T1
U0U8U01U10
U1T1-1
0U01yUU1y1
1U1T1-
1T1T1U11T1
0UUT9T]
UT]x]
]U]xy]U
]U\y9x]
1y1x1x1
]y18y8y1\U
]y0y9x11x9
U\1y0U101U
0U01U0U0UT
1T11x10y1x
101T110U0U
U01T0U0U10
11T1T1T101
U11-11-1--
9y8U1]UU0
1T1U010
U0U0U01U01
T11T10U01U
0y101y010U
0118U1T1UT
10UUT1U01y
0U01TUTUU0
1T11x11T11
\U8UT9y01U
0y1x11
TU]0y1TUU0
U0U0y9U0y1
8y01T1T]T9
T9T101U1T1
1U01TUT1y
01U0-1
-1P1U1y1
1U1y0U1
-01T1T
101]1
1yU\1yU
1x]y]yT
8y]y0y9x]
UTUUT]y\
\U]T]U8y]T
11T11
0U1T10y1x1
T1T1T1UTU1
xU1x1TU0y0
U1T11T1T10
U01T1U0U0U
1T1T1T1T0U
01101U1511
0-1-0-
y1UTUT
1T1T1
T1T110U1U0
10U11T11T1
1T11U01]01
9T1U0]U\1U
T1T101U0U1
U81U0y1U0U
11T1U81TU\
11T11TUU0U
0UUT1T1UTU
18U0U0UUTU
U0y1x9T]x1
y9y8y8y8
1TUU1T
TUT1x1
y9T9y0
U0U0-1
1UTU11y1y
]x]TU
0U]T9T1
18U]y\U1
U\U]T]1y8U
0U1T11T11T
11T110U10y
1TU1T1U11U
01T11T1T10
U1T1U10UUT
101T10U01T
1U01U01T10
U10U11U0
U01T1-0
090U91T
9y4U1\U
01U0UU10U1
U01T90U10U
0y8U0U0U1T
1T]T1U11\1
]TUU81x1U0
11y0]U
0UUT19
x1]TU1y0
09U0y0UUYU
U\UU\Ux1
y9U\UTUUYU
U\U9x1
9x9y8
]U9x1y9xUy
UY1U011T1
T1-01U1U
11U1Uy
1x1]U
1T1U11
U0U1T11T11
T1U0U1T1U0
1U0U10U011
T11T1U10U1
T1010U101U
1T1Ux11x1U
01U01U10U1
0U,U1T-
1U10U1y0
0U10U1
010]1x91T1
]01U1y
9UU9x1
1T]U0U
1\1UU09x9y
\1]U0]T]T
y8y8y1y0UT
0y8y9x9U1
1y9x1U9y8U
TU\U1\U]0y
1TU\U0U
1T1T]U0TUU
11\1\1
U0y1T11-
1y1y11T
1T1TUU01T]
U01]1T
01U101U0U0
11T110U010
1T11T11T11
0U101T11T1
T10U0U1T11
T101T1U0y0
Q1U,U0Q0P1
1011T1U01U
01T1TU
0U010U01T1
T110U101U0
U1T11T1U01
01T1T
10U1T1Y1T1
T1T110U9TU
1T]UU
9UTUTUY110
U90U0U1]0y
91TU90UTU1
1U01T1
TU01T11TUU
TUY1T10y0y
1U1\1UT
1U\U1y01y1
U0U0y1T1UU
1x1x9T11T1
UU1y1--
x]U0U09T1U
1T1U90U1T1
10U10U11U0
0U1T10
U1\1T1U0U1
U1U0U01T1U
0]0y1y1
9y1U0UUT10
U0U1T11T10
10P0U0-10-
U0Q1T1U,-1
U1T1U0U10U
1U01101U01
U0U1010U10
U101U0U10U
10110U011T
1TU9U10U1T
1T]T]1
TU090U01T1
0U1U0y1\U1
0UTU1
U\U\U
T]TUT]TU
yU8y1
0U0UT
1x]U1T]T
110UTUU
]1T1T1x9UT
5xU1x11
y]Ty9y\y]U
\U\y]y]UU8
y1x1U0U1T1
1T10U0-
Q1-1P1,--
Q1-1PUT-
U0U0U0U-
0U1T1U0U0U
1T1U0U1T1T
1U01T1T1T1
T1U0U19U0U
U8UU\1UTU1
TU8U0y
U]y8y8y
9y0y\y
]UU]x9y9y]
x9UYx9
]UT10-1-0U
1T1U1U1U1T
1-0UT
y]U\y
y9y01
8Uy9x11T1T
UU1U0U0U0U
x]y\y1T
11U0-01y]
1T1U0U0U0U
0U01y01y0]
TUU0y1UYUT
]UUTy8y9UU
]x9y8
]U]U]T]y0
0]UT]UTUT]
U1y1T11T1
T11UU0U110
]T9U]
1x91T9y0]U
U011T
U1T101U0UU
0U01U10U0U
-1-1-
11-1-11-
T0U0U1TUTy
0U1U0y0UUT
0y110y1T1U
U0U0U
U01U01U0U1
U501U1T1U1
11T101U0
1T10U10U01
U0U0U1
U1T1T
1U0U0
1T11T1T1T1
T1T1T1
T10U1T1T1U
010U0U0U10
U1T110]01T
10U01U01T1
0]010
T10U01T1U1
T11U1]101U
91U1U
1U11yU
]T1T1U11U1
U11U1U1
U11U1
U1U11U91
--1y1y
10U1y]
1-1--
U1U1U
U11-11U1U
T-11UYU
-11-1
--1--1-1
0U11y1
U0U-U0
x1y011
1U11-1-
-11U1-
U11U1yy]y]
-11-11
U1-1-1
U11yUy
U1U11-
1U11-
-1--1
-11U11U
-11-1Y1UUy
-1-1--
-1-1U
-11-1
-1-1-1-
11U1U]Uy]
yy]yU
1-1--
-11-1
-1U1U1y
]yy9y
11--1-
-1-1-
-11U1U1UUy
]yYUyU
U11U1yU
1-1-11-
11U11U
0y1y1y]y]y
--1-1
-11-1-
1-11-
T11U1x1yy
U0y1yy]yy
-11U11-1
1-11--11-
-101U10
1y1y]y
U11Q1
U1011-01-
1--0UU
]y0y0
U1y1yUy
U1U1U11
]yUy1
11U11U11
]yUUY
T11U11U1
:Y:Y:
U11U11U11y
]y11U
1T1U1
1y1U1
11U11U1
1-UUYy10y
U11U1U1y
U11U1U1U1
11U]y
}UY1U1
:^:^:
:^^:^:
:^:^2
::2^::
^^b^b
:^:^^::
::^^:
::^:^::^:
:^:^:
:^::2::
::^:^
:^::^
^^b^b
: : :
^::^^::
::^::
:^:^2:^:
:^^b^^
^:^:^:^
^::2^
:^:^:
::^::
>^^ :
:^:^::
:^^::^:
^:^::^
2^::^::
:2::^:^:
:^b^:
^::^:^
^::^:
::^::
::V::^
:^:^:^:^::
:^:^2^:
2::V:
:^b^>
b: : :
: :b
:_:^:^:^:
:^::^
::^:^
V::^:
>_^^_
^:^b^
: :b^^
:b^^:
::^::^:^
:^::^::^
^:^::^:
^2::^:
^::V::
V::V::2^2^
:^:^:
: :^b^^
:^^b: :b^b
>_^:^_
:^::;
::^:^
^:^::^:
^:^:^:^::^
:^::^::
:^:^::^::
:b_^^
: ^b^
::^:^::^:^
:Z^::
^:^::^:
:2:^::
^:^:^:
:b^:^^b
: :b_^
>_^b^
::^^:^
^:^::^:^:^
:Z^:^::^
:^:^:^:
:^^::
:^:V::^::
^^ :^^f::
:^^b^:
^>^^:^
b^^ :
: :^b^
: :^_b:
: :^^>
: : :
b^b^_^b
>^_^:
:^::^::^:^
:^:^:^:^:^
::^:^::^
^:^:^::^
^:^::^::^:
^::^:^::2^
:^:V::V
:^2:^::V:^
: :^ :
b_^^b^_
?^b_:
^:;:^
^::^:^::^:
^:^;^:^:^
^2^:^
::^::^:
::^::^
^:_^:
:b^^:
^_b^:
: : :
>_b: : :_
b: :^
:^:^:^:_
:^::^
^:^:^::^::
:^:^:^:^::
^::^:^:^:
b^>^^>^_^>
_^b^>^^ :^
_b^ :b
_^b^;
;^b^_
b^^_b
^::^:^:^:^
:^:^:^:^2^
:^::^::^::
::^:^:V
^:^::^:
::^:^:2^:^
^_^b:
:^b^:
:_^b:
:: : :
^ : :
: :^^_b^>
^ :_b;
:_^^:
^b^::
^:;:^:^:^:
^:^;^:^:^:
:^::^::^
:^^::^
:^:^::^:V
^2^::2:^
2^:V::^:^
^:^:^:
:;^^:
::^::
^_b^^:
^b::^b^:
:;^b^: ::
:^^c:
:_b:^^;
_ :^^;:
:^^:^:^
^::^;
^:^:^:^:^:
:^:^:^
V:^::^:^:V
^2^:^
^2^:2^::_
: :?^:
;^:^::^:
;b^^_^
:^^b^
:^ ^:
^:: : :
:^::^
: :^ :
:_:^:
^^_:^:
:^^::^:^:
^:^:^::^:^
^::^:^
^:^:^:^:^:
2^:2:^
^::^:^
^2:^2^:V:^
^: :^_^:
b^_b::
:^^_>
^^b;:
:b:_:
:_^b;
^^:_b^ :^
:^ :_ :^
^c^^:
^;b: ^^:^:
:>^?::^_
:^:_:
::^:^
^:^;::^:^:
:^:^::2^
_^::^:^:^:
2:^:^::^:^
:^:^:^::^:
V:^::^:^
^:2^:^:^2^
^c^_:b^^
:^:^:^
:b:^;
>^^_::
b^::^b_>;
>^_^>^_:
::^f^:
:^b^:
c^^?^_
c^^:_b:
::^:^:^;::
^:_:^:^:^:
^:^;^
^:^:^::^:_
:^:^:2:^:^
2:2:V
^:2^:V
6:V:2
2^::^::2
;b:^^_:^
^:^;^:
;^b^;^:b^_
^:^;:
:_^b:
^>_^^_
_::_^;
^^:^:
_^: :
>^_b:
>^ :_^^?
^?: :?
^:^:^?
: :^;
::^:^
^:^:^;
^:^:^:^:^:
^2^:^
^2^:^:2::
:^:V:^:2^2
^:^:^2^
:^_^:
:^^:;:
_:^: :
^?^:^_^?
:^^_:_^:
_:^:: ::_b
:^_^:
^b;: ::
^_>^^c::
:_^_^_^^:_
;^:^_
^:^:^
:;:^;^:
_:^:_:^::^
^:^:_:^:^:
:^:^:
^:V:^::2^:
^2^:2^::2:
:^:_^^:
;:^;b^
::^>^_
: :^:
:>^^b:^:
:^:^:
:_^;
:;^^b:_ ::
^_b:_
:_:^:^:b_
B_^^>:^>:
:^:^:^:
^:;^:^::;^
^:^:^:^:^:
^:^:^:^
V:^:2:^2:^
:V:^:V:^2^
:V:^;
:^ ::_:
^^_::^:
:^:_^?
: :_:^
_^:^_^:_
:f^_:
::b;:
:;^_^;
:^;^:
::^;
;^_^;
::_:^;^:
:_::^
::^;::^:
^:_::^:^:^
_:^:^:^:
^:^:^:V;:V
:^2::^:^:V
^2::^::2^2
2^::2^:
^::^:2^::V
:2:^2::^2:
;^>;^:
^^_:^^_:^^
_::;:^:
:_::^>
?:b^;^
::_^>:_>
:b:;^:_
:b^_:;^
:;^c::c:
>^b^;
>_^::
:_:_b;^;
:^::^:^:_^
_:^::^:^;
^;^;^:
::_^^
^:^:^::_::
^::^;^
^:^:^::^^:
^::^:
:_^:^:2:^:
_:^:^
^:^:^:^2^:
^::^2^::V:
^:V:2^2:^:
2^:^:^:^:V
:?:^::;
>^_b^b:
;^::^^::
:b^c:;
^_^^>;
:^:;^ :
;^:b;
:_^^:_:
;b_^>^:
:_::_::_
^::^::_::^
^:^:_
:^_^::^:^
^:^::^:^:^
:^:;:^:^:V
V::^:^:2^:
^:^:2:^::2
^:2:^
;^;:^_
:;^:^:
_:_:_:^::^
:;:^:
:^;:_::
:_:^;^:
;^:;b
:_b_^:^
_^>_^^:b:
:_:>_
?:^:;
>_>^:_
:_::^:
:;>^:^
::^::_^_:_
:_^^:_
:;:^::^:
^:^:^::_::
^::^:^:_:^
^:_:^:^
::^:^:^
;^::^
^2^:^:;:^:
^::^:^:V;:
2:^:2:^2^:
V:2^:^2^2^
2:^:V:^:V
:^;^^:
:_:^::
:>_:>
;^^_::
;:^_b;:b:_
b^:_b_^?:
^:^;^_^_^;
:^ :^:^: :
:b;^^_>
;:b^_
:^;:c:
^;:^_^?^;:
^>^:_:_
:^:_^^;
:^:^:
:^^;^:^;
^:^_:^:_:^
:^::_::^::
^::^:;:^
^_::_
::^:^
^:^::W:^:^
:^:^:^
^:^:^::^:^
^:^:^:^:^:
:^::^:V
^::^:^::2^
:^:^:^^:_:
^:^:;^::_:
_:^^_:^^:_
^:^:_^^::^
:;^_^:
:^:^:^:^;^
::^:;
^;^;^^_:^
:^: :
;::_>^^b;
:_:^_:^^_
;^::_^^>^:
^:: :_:
:^:_^:^
_::^_:^;::
;^;:^;
^:;:^::^::
^::_:^:^;^
:^:^;^
:^::;:^
V::2^
^:^::^
^:^:2:^2:2
^2:V:2^:2:
^:V:2^2:2^
:>:;^;:
;:^::
;^::^;^:
::^::
;^:^::^;^
::_:;^:_:_
^;^;:
;:_^:c:: :
_>^_^
::?^:
::;^:c:
;b::b;
^;^^;
:_:^:^:
:^:_:;^:;^
::^::^::^:
_:^:^:_:^:
_::^:^:^:^
:_:^:^:V:^
2:^2::V:^2
^:^::^:^:^
:^::^::^:V
:^:V::^::^
:^3:^3
;^;^:^^_:
_::^:
_::^::_^^:
:_^_:_
:^;:^::^;:
^:_::
:^^_^
:^c:_
::>^: ::^
^_:^;:^;
;b;:^;
;^>;:
^_^::^:
:_>^;
:;^;^:^:;
:;^:_:
;^::^:^^_:
;:^:_::^;^
::;^;:_:;^
:^:_:^:;^:
:^;^::^::
^:;^;^::;^
;^:^:
:^_:^::^::
^;::^
^:;:^::^:^
:^:^:;:V:2
^2:^2:^2::
^:2::^2:V:
V::^:^
:_:^;
:_^_:^_^:;
^:^:;^:;^
^::^::
^;^:^
;^::_:^:^:
^;:^::;
^_^;::_: :
;^:^_:
^;b:;^;^::
:?^:_^:^;
:^:_^;^:;:
;:^:^
:^:>;
;^;:^;^:
:^:^;:^;^;
:^:^:_
_:^::^::^:
^;:^:_
^::_::^:
^:^::^::^:
;^:^::^
^:^:^::V:^
:V:^:^:V:^
:V:^::^
^;::^2^::^
:2:^:V::^:
:^:^:V:V:^
:_:^:^:^::
;^^;^
:^::^
^:^:^;^;^;
;:^:;
;^:;^;
:_^^:
^:_::;^::^
::^;^^_::
;:^_:^^_
_::^ :;:^:
_^^::^;^:
::_:_^:_
^;^:^;
^;^:;::^;:
;^:_:;^::_
:^:_:^:;^:
^;^;::_:^;
^:^:^;^::^
;^:_^_:
^_^::_
::^;^:^
_::^::;^
^::V:_2^:^
:^:^::^2:^
^2^::^2:^:
2:^::^::^2
:2^:V:^:^V
;^:;::_
:_:^::^
^::^_:_:
:_^:^
:^:_^:^;^:
_:;:^:;^::
:_:^;:
;^:^:^;^;:
^;:_::_::;
^_^;^;:;^:
^:_:^:
_:^;^:
_:^;:
^:^;^:_:
^_^:_
:^;:;^::;^
:^;^:^:^;:
:^::^:_:;:
^:;^:;^::^
;^:_::^;^;
^;::^:
::;^:_
^^::_:
:^c^:
:^;^:^::
^:^:^:^:^:
V:^:_2^:2^
^:2:^2
^:^:2
^2:^2:^:V:
^2:V::^:^:
:^:2::
;^:^_^;^:
:^;:^:^:_:
:_:^:^::_
^::_::;
:^;^::_:_:
;^;^:^^_:
::^_^
:^_^;
^;:_::;^:_
::^;^:_:^:
:;^:_:
^^_::_:;^;
;: :;>^
;^ :;^:;
_::^:
^:^;^:^;:^
;::_::^:_:
_:;:^:^:;
:;^:;^:^;:
:;^::^::^:
_::_:
:^:^:^::^;
;^::_:^
:^::_
^:;:^2::^:
:^:V:^2^:V
:^:V:V:2^:
2^::2
:^:3^::^;^
:^;^^_::
^::^;::^;:
;^::_
^;:^:_:_:;
^:^:^;^:^;
^:;^:^::;
:^:;:_:^
^:;^;^;::^
:^;:_::^:_
:_:^;^:_::
:^;^:;^;:
^_::^;
:_:;^:
;:^:;
;^;^:
:;b;:_:;^:
_:;:^;:^;:
^:;^;^;^;:
;^:_:;^;:;
^:;^;:^^;:
^:^::;^:_:
^::^::;^:^
:^;^;:_:^:
^:^:^;:
;:_:^:^:;:
^::^;
;b^_^::^
;^:^::^:^_
^::^:^:_:_
:^:^:^:^:2
^:;:^
^:^::^:2:^
:;:V:^:
2^:^2
:^:3^:^:
;>:^;:_::
_:^:_:^:^:
:^:^:_::^:
;:^::^
^:;:_:^;:;
^:^::;^;^;
^:^:^:_:_:
^;::_
::^;:_^
::^;:;^
^:;:^;
^:_:;^;:_:
^^_:_:_:^;
;^;:^
::^^_:;b:_
:_:^_:;^:^
^;^:;^:^:^
;^:;^::_:;
_:^;:;^;^:
^;:;:_:_:^
^::;:_:^;^
^:^:;:^
:^:^::_::^
;^:_::^:
:;^:1
^::_:^:^:^
:^2^:^2
^2^:^2:V:^
:2^:^
::^:;^
^:;:_::_::
;^:;^:_:_:
;^;^;^:_:^
::^;^:_:^:
;:^:^::;^:
^;::_:^::^
:_:_:^:_:^
:_::;:_:^
;^;^;::^:^
:;^;^:_:^;
::_::^;
^:^^_:_:
^^_:_^_:_:
^^;^_::_:^
:^:;:_:^;:
:^;:_:;:^:
;::^:^
;^^:;:^:^:
:^;:^:^;^:
:^;:_^;:_:
_:_:^:^::^
:;:^::
:^;:;^:
_:;:_::^:;
:;:_::
^:_:^;::;^
::;^2^;^:^
:_::^
^::_::^:^2
^::V::^:^:
:V::2^
:^;:_::_:_
:_:_:^:;
_:^:;
^;:^;
;^:^;:;^;
:_::;^;
::;:_:;:
^:;:^;:^;:
_:^:^:;^:_
:^::^;^;
:^::_::_::
^;^;^;::;^
;^:;^::^;^
:_:^;^:^:;
:_:^::_::_
:_:;^:_:^;
:;^;^:;:^;
_:_:^::;^:
_:_::;:;^:
_:;^;::^:;
:^;:_::^
^:^::^::_:
:_::^:_:^
^:^::^:^::
_:^:_:_:_:
;^:_:^;^:^
:^::^
:^:^:^
^:;:^2:^:^
:^::^:^:^:
:^:2;^::^:
:^2:2:^:2:
^2^:^2^2::
V::V::;V
^^;:^:;^
^:;^;::^::
^;^;^:;^;^
;^::_:
:;^:;:^::;
:^:^:;:_:
_:_:^::^:^
;^;^:^;:^:
:;^;:^:;:^
;:_:^::;:^
_:_^;^
^;^:_::_:;
:^;::_:;:^
:;:_:_::;:
_::_:_::^:
_:^;^::;^;
^:^:;:_:^:
_::;^;^:^;
^;:^:^:^;:
^;^:_:;^:;
;^;:_:;:_
:;^::_:^::
;^:^:^::Z
^:^;^:^;
_:;^:_::_:
:_:^:2
^:2^:^::;
:_::_::_
_:^::^:;^:
^:V:^::^;:
2^:2_:^::2
:^2^:^::V:
2^2^:^:V:^
:V::W
;:^;:^:_:^
;^:_:;^:^:
^::;^::^:_
:^:^:^:^;^
:_:;:^:^:^
:^;^::
^:;^:_
^:;::^;^:^
::_:^:^::^
::;^;^:_::
;^;^;::_::
_:_:^;:^;^
;^:^;^;^::
^;^;^:_:;:
:_:;:^;^;:
;^;^:_:;:^
;^;^:;:_:^
:_:;:_:^
^:_::^:;:_
::_:^
^:^:^;^::^
:^:^::^::^
:^;^:^:^;:
;^:;::^:;
:^;::^:^::
^;^:^;::^:
_::_::^2^;
:;:V:^;
^:^::_
^;2^:2^:^:
^:2;^:^:^:
:^:2_::^::
^2:V::2^::
V::V:V:2^:
^:2^;:
:;^;:^;:;^
::;^::^;:;
^:;^:^;^;:
^::_:_:^:^
:^;::^;::_
^:_:_:;:^:
^;:;^:;^;:
_:_:_:^:_:
:_:;^::;^:
;^;^;^:^;^
:;^;::^;^:
:^;:^_::
_:;:^;:^;^
::;^;:;^:;
^:;:^:;:_:
^;^:^:_:;^
:^;^:;:^:^
;^::;^:_:_
::;^:^::;^
;^:;::^;^:
^:;^:;:_:^
;^:;:^::_:
;:_::^;:_:
_::;^:^::;
^;^:^;::^:
^:^;::^:_:
_:^;^:^;^:
;:_::_::^:
^:_::_::_2
^:^::V:_2^
::^:V:^2:^
:V:W::3
::^::_:^
^:^2;:^2:^
:^:W:^
:V:V:3^
:3:^:
^:;^;^:^:;
^:^:_:^:_:
^::_:;^:^
_::;^:_:^;
^:^:^:^;^;
^:^;:;^:^:
;^::_:_:_:
_:_:;^::^;
^;^:;
^::_::;^:^
:^;::_:;:;
;:^;::^;^:
^;^:;^:_:_
:_:^::;^;:
;^:;^:^;::
_:_:^;::_:
_:^::;^;^
_:^:_::_::
^:_:^:_
_:^_:_:^:^
:;^;:S"
^:;^:_
^;::_:^:^:
;:^:^:_:;:
^:^;::^
^:;:^;:^:^
2^:2_:2:^2
^:W::V
^::;^:;^;:
:^::^2_
^3::^:^:^;
^2:^::^::;
V:^3::^:V
:^2^:
:V:V:
^:V::
^;V::
_::^:_:;^:
:^::^:^;^;
:^::^::;^;
^:^:^:^
^;:;^:;:^
;^;^;:^:^:
^::;^;_
;^:;^;::^:
:^;:_:_:_:
:_:^;:^;:_
:;^;^;^:^
:_:;^::^:_
:_:^;:;^:;
^:;:^
::_:^
;^:;:^:_:^
:;:_:_:^;:
:_:_::;^;^
::;^;^::;^
::_:;^;::^
;::;^;^;
^:;^;:_::^
;:^:_:;::_
:_:;:_
:^;^:;:^:_
:;:^:_:^;^
:^:^::^:_:
;::^:^:_
^::^;^:V:V
:^2:^:^:^:
^:W:^:^:^2
^:V::^:2_
:2^:^::^:^
2^:2^2:^
V:^2^:
^2^:V:^2
:_:^;^;::^
_::_::;^::
^::_:_:^:^
_:;:_:^:^:
^:;^:_:^:^
:^::_:^;::
;^;:_:_:_:
_:^:^::_:^
:^:_:;^
;:^:_
;^:_::^;:^
:;:^:^::_:
:_::^;:_:;
:^:;:^:_::
_:_:^;:_:_
:^:;:_:^;:
;^;^;^:;:^
;^:^::;^;^
^;^::;^:_
_:^:;
:_:^:^
::_:_:;^::
^:;^;:^;::
^:_:^:_:;:
:_:^::^:;
:^;::^:^2_
:;2^::;^;^
V;::V:^3^:
3^::V:_:
2:^;:
2;:^3:^:^:
V;::^2;:V
2^::V::^::
:V:^2:^3:V
:_::^
:^;::^;^;
:_:^:
;^:;^
_:;:_:_:^:
^:^;:;^;:^
:^;:;^;^;:
_::;^;^:^:
_::;:_:^;:
^;:;^::_:;
^;::^;^:^;
;^:;:^;
^;:_::;^:;
;:_:^:_:_
:_:_::_
^;:_:^:;:_
:_::;^:^;^
:;:_:^;^::
;^;^;::_:_
::;^:_
^;^::;^:_:
_::^;^;::^
;^;:_:^:^:
_:_:_
^;^;::^;::
^:_:^:;^;2
:_:;:^;V;^
;::^:^:^;
^:_::^;:^:
2^:^2:V;:^
:2^:2^
2^;^:^::V;
:V::^
2:2:^;V:^
^:2^:V:
:^:V:_
:V:^2_2:
_::_:
;:^:_::^:;
^::^;::^:;
:_:_:^
_:;:^:^:^^
:;:^:^
^:;^:^::_:
;:_:^:_:_:
:;^;:
:_:^;^::^:
^:_:;:_::_
:_::_:_:^;
:^:_:^;2^;
:^::;^::;^
:;:;^;:^;^
:^:;:_:^
^;^:_:;:_:
^:^;:;^;^;
::^;^::;^;
^:;:^;^;:;
^;^:;:^::_
^::_:;::^
;^;^:;^::_
^;:_:_::^;
:^:^:^:^:_
:^::;^:^;^
;:2^;^:_:^
3^::^3:^2:
^::^3
:^2;^:_:
::V:;:^3
::2^;2^:^
2::^2^:
2:^3:
:_2^:
:^2:V
^2^2^
::_:;
^:_::^;:;^
:;^:^;^;:^
::^;::^::;
^;:;^:_:^:
^;^;::;:^:
_:;^:_:^:^
:_:;^::^:^
:;::^
_:^;:^:^;^
:^;::_:_::
_::^^:;^:^
:;^:^;:;:^
;::^::^::_
:_:^:;^:^;
:^::^;^;:
;^;^:;:_:_
:_:;:^:^;^
;:;^:^;::^
;^;::_:^::
;^:_:_::^:
^::_:^:;^:
:^;^::W:_:
_:^:;^:_:_
:_:^:;:^:^
^:^::_::V;
:;^;:;^::;
^:_:^3::W:
^:3^::^;:_
::^:V::V
W::^V:^;V
_:V::
:V:^:2:
:V:V:^2
:_:;^
;^;:_:^;^:
:^:;:^::^:
:_:^:^;^;^
::^:^
^;^:_:_::^
;::^:;^;::
^;:_:_:;
_:^;^::;:^
;:;^:;::^;
^::;^;^::;
:^:;:_:^;:
^:^;^;^:_:
_:;^:^;:;^
;^^;::^;^
_:_:_::;^:
^;^::;^:_:
^;:^:_::_:
_:^;:_:^:^
;^:_:^:;^:
:2^::;:^:_
::^::^;:^:
_:;^:^;^;:
;^::_:^;^:
^;V:^3^:V;
::^3^:^:;:
::^;2
:_::_
:V::^2:^
:2^2:^3
^::_:_9^;:
_::_:;:_
^::_:^;:_:
_:^;^:;:^:
^::^:;^;^;
^::^;^:^
^;^;:_::^;
^:^;^:^;
_:^::_:^::
_:^;^;^:^:
;:^;:;^
_::_:^:;^;
:;:^;^:
:;::_:^::_
:_:^::;^;^
:_:;:^;
:_:_:_:;::
_:_::_:;^:
:_:_:^;::^
::_:;::_::
;:^;^;^:_:
^;^::^;:;^
:;^;^:;^::
::^:^:^:
:;^:;:^:;:
^:;:^:_:^:
2^:2;^2
^;V:^;:^;^
;^;:3^2;V:
:_:^2^:
:^2:^;V
::^:V:^;V:
^:V::W
;:^;:
:_:_:;^
_::^::^:^:
:_:^:;
::^:^:;
^:^;:;:^;:
:;:_:_:
_::_::_::_
:^;:^;:;^
_::_:_:^:^
;^:^:_::^;
^:^;:;^;^;
::_:^;^:_:
;^:^::;^;
:^:;:_:^;:
;^:_:_
^:_:^
^;:_:^:_::
:^:_:_:
:^;:^:;^:3
^:_:^:;
;^:_:^;:_:
W:;:^;^:^:
^;^:^;:^:_
;^;^:;:
_:^::;
:^::V:
:V:;V
::;V:2_2::
_2::^
:^;:^;:_::
^::^:_:^;:
_:;^;:;^;:
_:^;^;:_:;
:^:;:^:^:^
:^;::_:_:_
:^;^:^::^:
:_:_:_:^;^
:^:_::_:;^
::_::;:^;
:^:_:_:;^:
;:;^;
::;^;:^;:^
:^;::^:_::
;^:_:;^:;:
_:^;^;:;^:
_::;^;^:_:
;:^;_:;:^;
:_:^::^:_:
_:^;:^:^;:
:2_:^3:;^:
^::_:;^;:_
;2:^3:^
;^;^:_:3^:
:^:;:^2_:V
:;2_::3^;:
^;V::^:^2:
_:^:^;2_:V
;:^2_:^;::
:^2^3^:
^:W9^;^
::^2^:
^:^2:
^;:^;:
^:;^:;^;::
_::^::^:^:
^::^;::_:_
:;:^::^:^:
^:;^:^;:_:
^::;^:^;:_
^::;^:;:_:
;^::^:;^:_
:^;^:;^;::
^::^;:;^;^
;^:^;^:_:^
;^::_::;^;
^;::_:^;::
;^:_:^:^;:
:^;^:;:^;^
:^:;:^:_
^;^;:_:^;:
^;:^::_::^
;:;^;^;
^:V:;:;^:^
^::^;^:_:^
;:^;::_::^
:3^;^:^;^:
:;^;^:^
;:^;:;
;V::^:
^;2_:^2
_2::^
V:V:2:W:
^;:_::_:;^
:^;^::_:;^
;::_:;^:^:
^:^;:_:;:_
::^:_::^:^
_:_:^;
;^::^:_:_:
:;^;:^
^:^;:^::^_
:;^;^:^;^
^;:^;:^;::
_:_:^;:^;^
_:_:^;::_:
_:;:_:_:^:
:_:;:;^;^:
:;^::_::^:
^::^;:^:;:
_:^:^;:W:^
;^;:_
:_:^:_::^;
_2::^;^::^
;2^:;V;:V:
^:V:^:^:_
;:2^:
::^2:
V;^2^:
V:W::_2^:^
;^:;^:;^:
:^:;:^:;^:
:^::^;
:;^;:^;
:^::^:^;^;
^;:^;:_:_:
^:;::_:^;^
^::;^;
;^;:^::^;^
;^;:;:_:_:
:;:^;::_
;^:_:^;:^;
^:_:_::_:_
:_:^::;:^;
^;:_^::_:_
::_:_:^:;:
_:^:_::;:_
:^:_:^:;^;
^;:^;^^:_:
:_::V;:^:^
::_2:^:_::
^:;:^:2^:V
::;^2:^;:^
;:W:_:_:W:
;^;2:^;:_:
:^;^;:;^2
^::V:
^2:^2^2
^;:^::^
^:2:_2
^:;^:
;^:;^;^:^:
;^:;^;:_:^
;:;^;
^;:^_:;^:_
^:_:_:^;:^
::^;:_:_:^
:;^::_::^;
;^:^:;^:^
:^:^;^;^:;
::^;^:^::^
;^:_:^;^:_
:_:^:;::_
_:^::_:;:_
::;^;^:_::
^;::;
_:^;::_:_:
^;::_:^;^:
;^:^:;^
^;^::;:^;V
;^;:W:;
^::_:;^;
V:^;:_:;
2^::_2:^3:
^::^2^:_::
V:^3^::
^;:^:2^;:W
^:^;^
^3^:2^
:;V::^:W
:V:2^:
:;^:;^:;^
::;^;2^:^^
^:^:^;:;:;
^:^;::^:;:
^;^;::^
^::^;:_::_
:^;::^;:^:
;:_:;^
_:^;^::_:;
^:;:^::;^:
;:^:_:;^:_
;^:;^^:;^:
_::^:;^;^:
_:_::;^
_:_:;:^:_:
_::;^:_:;:
_:;^:;:;^:
_:_2:_:_:^
;:^;:_
:^3:_:^:
:;::_:2^:^
^;:_::_::^
:;2_:V:;V:
;:^2;^
:V;:;^;:_:
^;:;2
:^2^:W:
:V:^2_
:^:V^:;^2:
:;2:^2
;^::^:^:_:
_::^:_::3:
^:^:V:7::^
:^:V:^::_:
_:^;^;^::^
;^;^;^::_:
:^:2^:;:^:
_::^;:_:^:
^::_2_::;^
::_::^:_:_
:_:^;^:^:;
::^;^::_:;
^:_:^;^::;
^:_::_:;^:
:_::_:^
;^;^;:^:_:
_:;:^;^:;:
_:^:^_:_:^
:_::^:;^:2
:_:;^;:V:;
:^;:;^:^::
:W:^;:^:
;^:_:^:
_:V;:
^:V:^3^:^:
2_2:^
;V_::W:^:2
::^;:^:;^;
^;::^:^;
;^;^:;^:^;
:;^:;
:^:3:^
:^:;^:;
^;:^::_:;^
;^:^2_::_:
:^:^:;:;^:
^::^^:;^:;
^;::^
_:;^;:_:^;
^:;:_
;^:^;::^:_
::^;^;;::_
:^;:;^;:^:
_:^;::_:_:
^:;^;:_:;^
:;^^:
:_:_2^:^:;
W:^;^;:;^
:2^:^
V;2:^;2^:^
;^:;^:V;2;
:W:;^
V:W::
::^;:^
^:W:_::_:^
:^::^:_::^
^::^;
^:^:^;:;^:
^;:;:^2_:;
:_::_:;^:;
^::;^;::^2
^;^2::_:^:
^;:^;:;:^:
_^:^;^;:^;
^:^::^:;:^
;:_:_:_:;^
:^;^;^:^;:
^:_::_:_:^
:^:_::;:_:
^:_:;:^;^:
:3^:_:V::;
^:_:_:;^::
:^:;:
^;:_:;^
:V;:^;:^::
V:_:V:^;:^
;::;^:^:^;
V:^:_
V:W:3^;^
2^;^2
2^2^:
::_:;^;^;^
2^:_:;2^;^
::^;:;2^;^
::^;:
^:^:;:V:^:
_::^:^:2^:
^;:^:;^:^
:_^;:^:;^;
^::;^;:^;^
:^;^;
;^::^;^
;^;^:_::^
_::^3^
^;^;:^;_::
_:^:;:^;^:
:_:^:_:
:_:;:^;^;^
:;:_:^;::_
^:2_::_:
:V;:^;
:2^;V:;:
:_:W::^3
:;2^2:_:
^:_:^
;^2_:W:
:V;:W
2_:V:
W::2^
^;:_::V
^:^;^:2^:^
^2:6_:^:^;
^::^;:^2_:
2^:;^:;^:^
;:^::_2_
^;^;::^:;^
_:;^:^;:_
6:^::W::_:
^;^:_::_::
^;^;^::_
^;^;::
_:;:^;^_::
;^;^;:^;:^
2^:;^:_
;^:_::3^;^
:2^:;^:2_:
_;::_2^;
^;:;^3^:;^
:_:^:
:2^;:
3:V;2^;2
^;:_:
:2::3
_:^;^
:3:^:;
^:;::_
V::^:;V::^
;^::_:;^2:
^:^;:^
^:V;:^
^:_:V::^::
;:^:;:_:_:
:;V::^:^:;
:_:_:^;:
:;^;:_2:;^
^:^;2^:^;^
:^:W:;::_:
_::^;:;^:;
:;^;^;:^
:_:^:;^:
:;V:^
:;^3^:
:_:^;:V:
:3^;:^2^
_:;V:_
:2:_:
2_:2^:2:
:^;:^;
:_:;::_:
^:^2_:3
:;:^;:^
;:V::;:_:2
^;:_::^:^;
:^2:^;^;^3
^;^::_:_2^
;::^;^_:W:
^;^:_:^::^
:^:;^:;:W:
_:2:_::_
^::^:_:^:;
^;:^;V:;^:
^;:^;2;^:;
:_::^:_:^:
;^:^:_:^
^;^:;^2_:_
:;^;:_:
;:^_:_::^:
^;2_:^;2^;
;2^:^:
:V:;^
^3:^2:
V;:V;
^;:_::;^:
^:^:^;
^::^;^2
V:^:2^:^:_
:^^::
_:^2::^:
;:^2_
:;:V;:
_:^;:^2:^:
^::^;^:;^:
^2_:;^;::^
;:^:2_
;V:;2:^;^:
^;:^;^:_2_
:^;:V;::_:
;:_::_2_
V:;^;
:^2;^
2:^;^
:2_:;:;^
_::^2^:
_:^;:
::_2;::_
2;^:^2
_:V:^2;
_2:_:^:^;^
:^;::
2^:2^
::^::2^;:^
;^:;2;^::;
^:^;:;
_:_:_::^;^
;^3^:_:
:^:;2:^;:_
:_::_:^:
:;:_:3^:V:
_::^;:^
:^;^:^;^::
_:2^;^:;:
^2:;^;^:W:
^:^:V:
::_2:_::^
^:_:;:^:^;
;^:_:^
;:V:^
V;:W:
2:^3:W:^3
:^:;:
^:^2:
_:V:^2_::
^::V:^
;^;V:_
:^:_2^:;
:V:^3^:;
:^::^;:
^;^;^
:;:^:;^
;^:^;:;^:;
^::_::^:^:
^:;:^:;^:;
^;::_:^:;:
_:^:;^::;V
;^2;^:
_2^;:
_:;^;:
;V::^
2^:^;2^:^:
^:;^;
:V::^2^:;
^:;V:_:2_:
W:^:^
^3:2^
^:;:_:
;:_2:^:^
^:2_^2
;::^:V:
:W:^:;
:^::^;^
;::^;V;
_:_:_:_2^;
:^3^:;:^:^
;^;^;V::_:
^;2;^3^;
^:_V::;
^:^:^
_:_::^;^
^::_:_
^;:^:
^:2_2
:^2^:V
:_^2_:V::_
^:^::_
::W:^:V:W
2_::^
:_::_
2:^::^::^;
:^;V::^_2^
;^;^3^;^::
^:;^::
^:^:^:2_:3
:;^2;^
:_::;^:_:
^:2:;V
:_:;^:_:;^
^:3^:
:W::_
^:;^2
:^2;^:V;
2^::V:_:
:_:V;
V:V:^3
:^:;V::^
:V:;^::
;:^::^;^
:^::^:
V;:^:^::^
:^;^:
:^:V:^::
3:_:;V;:V
_:;V;:;^2:
_:^:;:2^;^
:_:^::^;^3
^;:_:;^::^
::;^;^:_:;
^:^:;
:_2;V:^;:
^;:^;:^
:V;:V
:^;:_
:^;^:
;V:^::W
;^:^2
:V:2^
;V^:W:W:
:^3:_2:
::V;::
V;:^:
^:_::V;::2
^::_::^
2^:^;^
::2_:^;^2:
_::_:_::
2^;2_:
^3^:^2;
:V:;^::;^2
^;^2;^2
^:3:^
^::_:
:^:2^
V^:^3
^:V;2_:2
W:^3^
:2^:V
^2;^2_
;:V:V;^:
;^;^2_
V;^:^::V:;
^;:;^:
:_:^::
;:^;^:
;^;:_2:^;:
::W::^
:^2;^:^:
:_:;^:V
3^2:_
;^;V;:_
:V:_2^
:;^:;^:
^:^:;
^;^2_
:_2^;:^
^2^::W
^:^3^;V
V:;::^:W::
^2;V;
;V:^;V:;
^::_2^2^
^;^::_:^;V
^:_:^:;^;:
^:^:W:
3^:^::
:_:;V:^2
_2_2^:
^;^:2:^
W:^V:
2:W:^3
_2_2^
2:V;:
:V;:V
:^2^;^:
::_::V;:_2
^:^:^
;V:^2_:W
:^;:_
;^:^;
^;^:^;
;^3:_::V:
2;:^3
^2^2^:2
^3:2_
^;^2_::^2;
^;:W:
_2:W:_:V:
:_:V:^2:
;:^;V;
::_::
:V:W::V:
;V:W::_::;
^:_:_:V
:_:_2:
:_:^2;
_::^2
_2^:V
:2^;2^
V::^2_:
^:^:;
:_:2_::^
:^3^:_2
_:V::
:_::V
:;^:^
;^::_
:^2_:^2
^:V;:3
;^3^2
3:^2^
;^;^:2
^2^::V
;^2^:
:V:^;2:^:
V:_::
V;^:;
3^2:^
:;^2^
2:_:_2^:
^::W::
^:^:3
:V:^;
W:_:^:
:V;::^2:
:^:2:_
:W:^:W:
2^2;V;
3^;^2:
:^;::
^:W:^
_:_2_:
V;^;V
;2^:^
:_2:^;
^2:W::
:3:2;
^2:^::2;^:
;^3^:_
W:^:W::
V:^:V:_:
3^;^:^2^:_
;:V:^
3^:V:
^::V:
2^3:3^
^3:^:
W:;^2
:^;:V:V;:;
^;V;^:^
V:3:2
2^:W:
^:2_:2
:^2^::
^2:^::^
^;:_::
3:_:2
^;:W:_:^
2_:^;
^;:V:
^2:^:V
V:_:V
:W:^:
:^::V:_:
;^3^;
W:2^2
^2:^;:2:
;2^:;
^:W:_:^:W:
^;V:_2;
W:^2_:
^:2_:2
:V:^2
V:^2^;
:2^:V
^3^3:
^:^2_
^3^2^
^2;V:2^;:
;^2:^
^:2;^
:2^2^2
:W^:^2
;:V:W
2:;:2^
^2^2::V
^2:V;
V:2:_
p332-1
ftsTitleOverride
Seeing the Invisible (page 1)
ftsTitle
A gamma-camera scan of the skull of a patient suffering from secondary bone cancer. This color-coded image shows the position and intensity of gamma rays emitted from a radioactive isotope injected into a blood vessel supplying the skull region. The technique depends on the fact that the radioisotope forms greater concentrations in tumors and cancerous bone (shown here in red) than in unaffected areas.
Seeing the Invisible (1 of 3)
The light by which we see is only one of many means at our disposal for detecting, measuring and observing things. We can also use sound, beams of electrons, and radiation in various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared radiation, gamma rays, X-rays and radio waves. By these means we can penetrate the depths of outer space and gain access to a hidden world inside our own bodies, deep in the oceans and under the Earth's crust.
These forms of radiation - like light -exhibit wave-like properties and travel in straight lines. In certain circumstances, therefore, they can be used to provide sharp shadows or clear images of objects that would otherwise be invisible.
X-rays
When Wilhelm Rontgen (1845-1923) discovered X-rays in 1895, the effect was sensational. By directing X-rays through the body of a living person, the bones within the flesh - which absorb X-rays - could be seen as shadows cast on photographic emulsions or fluorescent screens. Within months X-rays were in use for diagnosing bone fractures. It was quickly found that the digestive tract could also be seen, if the patient were 'fed' with a chemical such as barium sulfate that absorbs X-rays and therefore shows up when scanned.
X-rays were so called because Rontgen did not know what they were and gave them the name mathematicians give to an unknown quantity. They are in fact a form of short-wave electromagnetic radiation emitted by cathode-ray tubes. More than a momentary exposure to X-rays damages tissue, which has given them a second use in radiotherapy, where they are used to destroy cancers in the body.
The use of X-rays in diagnosis was revolutionized by the development in 1973 of computerized axial tomography, applied first to the skull and later to the whole body. Earlier tomography techniques had provided cross-sectional images, but with nothing like the clarity of this new method. The patient is placed inside a machine in which the body is scanned by a rotating source of X-rays. Variations in the density of the tissues are detected, and assembled by a computer into a cross-section of the brain or body.
In addition to their medical applications, X-rays may also be used to examine inanimate objects, such as baggage at airport check-ins or to detect subsurface defects in materials. Gamma rays are sometimes used for similar purposes, while historical documents (for instance) are studied in very much the same way using beta rays.
Sound
Animals such as bats, whales and dolphins have long been known to use high-pitched sounds to locate objects in the dark. In the 1920s sonar or ultrasound devices - closely mimicking the ultrasonic technique used by animals - were developed, primarily for naval use in detecting enemy submarines. A series of pulses of sound in the ultrasonic region - above the range of human hearing - are sent out and their reflections detected. From the time taken for the pulses to return, the position of intervening objects can be determined. Whereas bats use ultrasonic emissions (with very short wavelengths) because they need to locate tiny objects such as insects, sonar uses ultrasonics to avoid the excessive spreading of the beam in water. Such techniques are also commonly used to measure the depth of water, and can be used by fishing boats to gauge the position of shoals of fish, or by geologists to study the sea bed.
Ultrasound has applications in medicine, where it has distinct advantages over X-rays. Whereas X-rays cannot be used on pregnant women for fear of injuring the fetus, ultrasound scanning has no damaging effects. The images obtained are so precise that they can even be used to guide operations on the unborn child to relieve a number of dangerous conditions.
Yet another application of sound is in seismic surveying in the search for oil and minerals. A loud impact on the ground, created by an explosive charge or by dropping a heavy weight, creates sound waves that travel down into the Earth and are reflected back from underground rock layers. The sound waves are detected by an array of instruments at the surface, and the data can be processed and displayed by computer. From the arrangement of the rock layers, geologists can estimate the chances of finding particular minerals or a reservoir of trapped oil or gas.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
00\98U\\x
T,T9\9
\x9\]\
]T9\1
`T\T,
Uy8U0
x0P898
]0]\T
9P0xT
9\\]00P9
$$,H,$$
T]0<]\
llHP$$
$PH$,$
0T$HH
Txa0T8P$
,lHH$,$H
$l$$H
l$llx
$$,$H
Hl$$H,H
$,$$,
8y0]\
0x0y81
$,$P$P
$H$H$
xTT0\
x]T1\0T
9]`P\
y0T]\
\]\8x
]<,x8
$HHPl
:80U0
$tHPl
0P001
$$Ht$,$lPl
$H$,Htl
xx09\
8T08P
lPH,H
ltlPHPl
P9\0\0T
8\9\00
P9089T0,T
0U8]09
ll,$$
HHPlH
$$llPl$
T8\08x
$$llPlH
\T08]80T0
$,$Pp
,HHlP
xT\\98
$$lHtl
Lltl$$
$HltL
ll$,$,
P$llt$
,l$lH$$
\xx09
00U8\
TT\18
0U009\T
\x0]<
T00]8
01\]0
]\]0T
00T,`0U0
0]8T\
9T0T818
0T0T0
a\8=,
T0]80T8T
]89T\x
P0Tae
]8a\]\1
T9x01
]9\8T0
P]T98\8
\\]TT
\T0\P0
0TT,a
\1T0T
8T8x0
8T8T0T
xT99\
TTP90
\]0T0
8x\]0
9\9\]T
T0]9=
]0\9\,
TT,]8
1x]T]
810]\
T09T9\T0P
:8\8T,T00
8]`xx
:\80,
x89\T\T0
88]\0
988x0T
T18U8
\\]8T0
\800T]
9Ty-9
:\\]0
T\L8]
H,H$8
tH,x8
00\18
T\9\]\]\x0
<]\0T
T080\8
T0T\\
:T8T9
l$HH$
ltlH,H$$
$$,$$
lPlHT
HPHP$P$
l$$,Hl
\x9\98
1T9T88
0T0\9
8\08T8
98\0\0
T9\0\
p332-2
ftsTitleOverride
Seeing the Invisible (page 2)
ftsTitle
Seeing the Invisible (2 of 4)
Radar
Radio waves - like sound waves - are reflected off solid objects. This fact led to the development of radar (short for 'radio detection and ranging'), following studies by a number of scientists in the 1930s. In order to give suitably narrow beams, of adequate intensity and able to offer accurate location of objects, the shortest wavelengths then attainable were used. Initially this meant wavelengths of several meters, but this was gradually reduced, microwaves coming into use in the early 1940s. Radar sets were installed in Britain in time to provide early detection of the oncoming squadrons of German fighters and bombers in the Battle of Britain in 1940.
Microwaves are transmitted in the form of pulses, with the gaps between pulses chosen so that there is time for the reflected pulse to return and be detected before the next is sent out. From the time taken for the pulse to bounce back, the distance to the object can be calculated. If the object under surveillance is moving, the frequency of the echo will change, and from this variation in frequency - known as the Doppler shift - it is possible to determine both the object's speed and its direction of movement.
Radar today has many uses, both military and civilian. The biggest radar sets are used to give advance warning of a nuclear attack by detecting missiles soon after launch. Both the navigation of ships in crowded sea lanes and air-traffic control would be impossible without radar. It can also be used in weather forecasting and for mapping. Radar altimeters in aircraft work by sending signals to the ground and measuring the time it takes them to return. The data is then used to calculate the aircraft's altitude.
Radio astronomy
In 1931 it was discovered that there are radio waves emanating from sources in space. They were first detected by an American engineer, Karl Jansky (1905-1950), who was studying static, the noisy crackling sound that interferes with radio reception. He discovered a source of radio waves far outside the solar system, in the constellation of Sagittarius.
After World War II a number of radio telescopes were built to investigate these sources. Some extraordinary and unexpected features of the universe were revealed, including pulsars, tiny collapsed stars rotating at up to 30 times a second and emitting intense beams of radio waves. Radio astronomy was also responsible for discovering the most distant objects ever detected - quasars, quasi-stellar objects that are thousands of millions of light years away and emit as much radio energy as a whole galaxy. X-ray telescopes carried by satellites have also been used for astronomical observation.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
yPyPt
Pyt,t)P
1Q,-T]y0
]y11Q\
Uy1Q]y
yxUy1yy1yU
11U1-11
1--111
T111-
y1-U0-
UxUuU
11-11-1U1
1111U1-1
U1111U1y]1-1
1111U11--11
1-111U
1-11-
111U-
11-1y111
yUyxyUy
UU111-U11-11
11-y111
uTuyUxQyQx-
1111U11111
111111
yTyyTuy
]1U1-]
1-1U11
y11U1U11
1U1U1-1U1
UtyUx
UuPyU
Y1111
11111
111111
11-111
U-11-1
-1111
UyUyUy
yUyyU
1-11U
-21U11
xyyUyyyUyyUyU1)y]y
UyUyyUuUUT
:U:y11y
xUyQTy1
QUyUyUy
1--11-1
1111119
UyUyUQ--,
y1U11
Y1-1-
11-11
UQ(UUyy
1yy--U
11-111
y1U11
11-yUU
-1111U1
-1111
1111y]
1U111U]1
-TUyy
1)1UUyU1
11U111
0yyUU
1U111
-U-1-1-1y
1111-
y-y1-
U1U1U
1U1111111U
y]1U11
1-U1-1
1y-Y1-
u]QUx
U11-y
-111-
11U11-
1UUy1
Uy]y]
11U111
UU1--U
1---1
-11--
tLUt$Q
-P)xQ
-11UU
y]UUU1
U1U1yUU
-1U11
yQUQ1
LQ(QTu
1-U111
11-111U1U
11U^U
yUy0U
::^1^
Z^111
11-U111U1
1]QUyyUu-1
Uy11-
-1U11
--yy1
1yUyy1]
1U1111
-1---]
1yyUy
::^2U
111-1
0U1y1
-111-
1U1UP111
)U]y]QUUUy
1yy1U-,U1
1-1Z1
1V1V1
U]uT1yyUU1--
yPtPt$
UU111-111-11UyUU-
]yUUy
11UyUy1--
111U1
Uy1QU
1Uy--y1-
-1y-yy11-yUx
11-11
11-UUQ1UU
yUU11-
-U1yU1-yy1-y
1-1-1
U-11UUyUU11-
yUyUy
111U1U1--11y111U1
y-y1y
11y1U111yy--111yQyyyy
11yy11]
1U-1x
1-11yUy
U1UTuUyU
1yUu1y1-1Qy
1-U111
UU1U1)U-y
1-1U1
-1111
1112:
9-,y-1-P1L
y1y1111
1^111
1111U-
^11U]]:U1
yyQQUQUU-
1-111)1-1
-1]1-:-
UyUyyU-
11-11M11
yUytUu0--
1:11yU
11U-y
yUu1MU
yUyUy
11-11
UyPy1-,
UUUyyu1
1U1-11
1yUM1P
]U1y]
1Q-Q1-
-yQU1
Uy1TU
-yQy1U1
1-]y1
1U1)11U
]11U1U-
Uy1yy
1)uxUux
1-11111
U1-111UQ]
U]1-U
-111QU
1U11--1-1
111--1
111-1-1-1
1yy11U1-1U
]1:U]
11M11111
1-]y1
]UM]y
11111-1
1-11-
U1U91
1Y11^
y]1-U
11U1-
]::U1
U111U1
Q(---L-Py
1-1y11
]y-1]
]y1U]
11---1
]U11U
y1UU-]
---11-Y
-2^1-11
1y]y-1
1yUU1
Pq,)t
11yUQUUUQ-
U:11]
11111U
1---1U1
1111-
]U1]y
1^1:Y
]Q-1-:U:111-1
y11y1
PL-,M
11111
yy11yyU11y1-
-11-11
UyU1y
]UQyUU
11-111
y1yUUUUUY1U
-111-
-1U11y
y-111
]yUyUUU
1U]y1
111-11
y]yUyyyU
y1U]y
yyyy-0y
]U1y1yUU
11U11
1111-111yy}Uyy1UyUy
y-U1y
11111UUU]
-yUy0yU
YyUy1Q
$$,PL
---111
yUyUyyUy
x]-Y1Y
]y]yUyUyU
1-U]yU1
1U1--1
y11U]
1y]yUy
1yPy]
1U]yU
Uy1UY
-11-1
UyUyyUyy1y11
1y0y1y]U
]UUUU]
1-1U111
yUyy1yUQUy
UUUuUy111-Y
yyUy0Qy
1yU-1
1U11U1-
Uy1Q1y
yU1UU
-11111-
111-1-
UU]y1yUy
11y1y
y]y1y1Q
]yyUU
y1yUyy1y
UU11y
--11-
]UUy1yy1yyU
1-111
10yUyy
1y--yyUy1UUyy]y
19^1:
U]y1x]U
1-Q,U1y
U-y1U0y1yy]UU
yUy1U111U1U-UUUU11
U:111U
YU]11
-Y1-U
111U]UY
UUUyy1
]1--1y1Q1yU
11yUU
UUUUUy1UU1y]
T1yy]
111] ]
-111y
1yUy-y
yU-UyyUyy]y1y
U1:U1
111y1
-1yUUUU11U1Y1Q1-UyUyUyUy1QU
UUyUy
UyU11
1-y1U11
11yQy-xy-Q
1y1yy
U1y1-
UU11-
U^UU11
1y1111
]U1UU
U1U111-(y
y1yUUU
1-]yUU
1Uy1yUU
yU}UUUU11y
11--1
111911U
1$1yUy
1)1yy
]}Z11
]yy11UUy}U1Q,y
-1U11y
yU1y1yUy
UyyUy
1-11-11
11111-11
11yUYU
y11UU
1UUUUU
:11111
Uyy]y
]U1-1-
1]UUy1y
t-u,$Q
UU1UyU
yUy]y]
11-11
111Uy
UyUU1
1111U-
]U1U11
-1M11-1
-:1:^^
1--1111-U
UT-Uy
-1U1y1
11-111U
y5Uy119
UU1y]
1y]U]
1-1-11
]U-y]
1UUyb
111-11
1U1-111
:11U111
11yy]y1
^11-1111
1U1y]
-q,QUtu$L
U]uTU]
]y11y-1
-1-1U
1UUyU
11U:^
]-11U
1-111
11-1-1
1U111
11111
]2U9U
-xZyUU11Y
1yUU1U1U
111y1-11
:U11111
]y1UUyy1
111-:U
UUU11
-1--11
:V9^1
-Uy]U1
111Uy]
111y11y1
1U11-1
111U1
Uy1yUY]
y11191
Y1UUyU
-1111
Uy1U]
:11U11U1-1111U1
11)U1111U1
]U11U1
1U1U1
1y1-1
1-1::
111U1U
-111y1
1U]y1
-11U1
21-:U
UU1-1-
111111
119V:^
111y1
11UUP
11--U
1U1-yUUPUy11-1
21-11
1Uy1U1Uy1
1UUyyUUU
1111-
V--111
1U1111-1
11-y1y101-111UUy
11111-1
Uyy1-1]
^V:111
1UU1U
U1^:U
1QUy1U1
1]1-Y
1U11-11
1111U
--11U1yUy
y]yUyU]
1-1-1Y
U1-11U1
-1U111
1-11U
11-1y1
111U111
611U:-
1y1111
U11-111
U11yy
1 1-1U11
TUUy111
1-111-1
-1::1
1U1U-
1U1-1
11U^1
U111-
1-111-111U1
1U111
1-M11
1-1-1
1U111
1U1-1
Uy111
--11-11
1::^:U1yy]
-1U1U1111
y1^1^
1:1U1-:9
1yUy-
11-:U
-9U:U]
Uyyyy1
11-11111
1y11-11y1111-
::]^91U1
yUU1-1
1U11U1
-1111
1U1119
111U1111U
1U11-
1U1111^
1U1111
1-111
}111U
11U111
9Z91]
^1-11U1
11-11
11y111y]
yUy]y1Z
1U111y
yUy]U
Qy1-1
11y]yy
-U11U1y
yyU1-111-UU]
U111UU
11111
11U111
1911y1]
1]y11U
1-111
xyUU1
1U111UYy1U1
1111-U1U1-
yUy111-11U
1UUU1
U111y11-Y1U
U11111
y11^1
11-11111
11111
UxUyTyUx
yTyUxUy0
0-UUUT1
-U,uTQ,U-P--U,-
1QyT-11UT1y11-111-1-1111T1U11
U1111U1
111UY111U1
11U11U1U111--
TUyPy,uTyT1-
-1-0U1-
-11111
]1111U111
11U1-Uy1--]
1U1-1-1
11U01
p332-3
ftsTitleOverride
Seeing the Invisible (page 3)
ftsTitle
A scanning electron micrograph of a dust mite among household dust, shown in false color and magnified 500 times. Scanning electron microscopes are capable of magnifying objects up to a million times their real size, and have been responsible for some of the most dramatic pictures ever taken.
Seeing the Invisible (3 of 4)
Electron microscopy
However powerful an optical microscope, there is a limit to its resolving power, set by the wavelength of visible light (typically about 5 x 10-7 m). Although particles much smaller than this wavelength can be detected, it is not possible to resolve any detail or to separate close objects. The answer is to use a beam of electrons. Such beams typically have wavelengths 10 000 times shorter than that of visible light, and much shorter wavelengths are possible; they can be focused (by means of electric or magnetic fields) to form images.
The first electron microscopes were built in the 1930s. A thin slice is taken from the material to be examined. A beam of electrons is then passed through the slice, and the electrons strike a screen to produce an image. An alternative is the scanning electron microscope, in which the beam scans across the surface of the object, producing a detailed three-dimensional image. Its one limitation is that it cannot study living specimens, because the object must be kept in a vacuum to prevent air molecules interfering with the beam.
Image intensifiers
Image intensifiers can be used to amplify electronically the image or shadow produced by detection techniques using various types of radiation. Particularly in military contexts, image intensifiers have been adapted for use at night, to boost the tiny quantities of moon- or starlight reflected from targets or other objects. Essentially they work like TV cameras, turning the image into a signal that can be amplified and displayed on a screen. Devices sensitive to emissions of infrared radiation can be used for a variety of detection and imaging purposes. In military contexts, infrared sensors are used to detect heat given out by engines or even individual soldiers. Because infrared devices can operate in complete darkness, photographic emulsions sensitive to infrared light can be used at night or in conditions of poor visibility.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
,H,p,t(
,pPL1
p,PLH$1
LPP]P
,LtLt
1y$H,
tP$ttpt
HtLttLH
,ptPpPP$
HPLH,pPtH,
,lPL$,pPHT
HPpPPLP
,$,$PpHt
$,t,$,P
P\P1U
PPpt$
HPLP(PL
$Px$t
L$Px,
tLPPLt$$
PP$P,
tpHt$
p,pPt
$PP$t,
tPtx,
t(H,$
lP$t$
P$PP,
^T-xP
(,1T9|,(,$
PPpPH
$tH,p
0yTy$
PpTP1
$,pPP$$,Ht
,t(tLt
lPpPP
pPtH,
pPtLt
,pPxx
(H,pP
y01y0
LHPHH,t
Ptp,H,p,tP
$,HP$
HxPTT
y]TUT0
tyUtPtTtp
,(Ux,U
Lt,PL
tPLlt
t(PtL
$tpPx
xU0y1
PLPLx
Pt$,$
PH,Lt
LPLtPt
$,pxt(
y]U\P1
$$PPL
t(H,$$
Ut$,tH
tLH$tL
PptPH
tt($Ppt$$P
$,LPL$tHtH
PL,$,H,L
(tt(lx
PPpPp$
LPtptpPHt
,tHPL$
P$,t,xPtP
tP$tLt$
$t$,p$
LtxlP
p,t($tLtP
tHPp,
tLt(PLPH,$
pPtptT
xPptt
,$,pH
,(Ht$
P($H,P
,ltpH
pPHP$$,x
tLP0x
t$,pP
t$,pP
t,H,($P,
PPL,t
,p,tpT
PL$tH
tLPp$t
LtPpP
t,t(t$
PtPpP
tLltp
$,$,L
tLt(t,t
p,p$PPy
PLP$PPpPt
tHt(lPLt
,$,pP
,$$PHT
pH,$PH
P$t(PLP,$$
LPH,tL
tPP$HP$
PL,$,,PpPP
tPpt(
$,$$P
(tpPP(t
,pPp$PtHt
Ty,Lt
$$HP$
LHt($P$,$
tPtU$
$$,xTQ
tt,H,
T$xHP
P$t,p
tLH,pP
$PHPpt
H,PPp
Ttt,p
xUtxP
p,p,,pP
p,Pp,
tLPlP
$xPp,
UtTtT
xt,,pP
t$P$t(
,pP$ttLttL
,p$TtH
pH,$PL,PH
P(ttL
HPLHPHt$t(
H,Lt,
,Htp1pQ
ttLP$t
p,xl,t(P
tLtPLPPH
,p,t(
$P$tp$PP
$$P$$,
PLtPl,
$$,$t
pPPp$t
t($,H
L$,$P$
t(tpHtLt
1xtLt
PLPLltHtL
PtLP$x
PL$$PH
$,$t,p
H,$PL$
,L$,t$,$
(tPPlPL
$t(tPPLxt
tLP(t(H$,
pH$,$,(PP
PL,PL$H
uLtPLPyHPL
tL,PL
,t$tLH
$P(tL
PL$PP$
Pttp,tLt,l
HtLPp$
$,H,L
HP($l,
,$tLtH
$PH,HP$
PpPHLH
,pPPLt
pP($P
,$tp$PPHl,
$,$t($,
($P$,$
$t(tP
HtH,HP$
$$P(t
(ttHHPxtPP
Pt,p,t(
tTpx1y/
Ltt,pt
tt(P(Ptpt
,HPp,
MUT\$
,(P(l
,$,$PLP
PH,Ht$
t$t,p1P
LPtPt(
P,(t,H
,$$tH
$$PpPP
xPL$tTlPl
P$P$P
P$,H$PlP$H
PPp,t
tLt,p,(P,
Pp,,t
,Htpt(t$,T
$,Pxt
tPpPL$
$P$t(
tLtLP$
xH$$t
P$tLPH
,tLPLtPL
tp0tLPP
HPt$t(x
,($,$
HPpH$,$
$P$$t
ay1x1
H$,p,L$P
$PLPPLtL
PLPpPP$
PLtPpt
Tt$PL,
pPHtH,
PttLt,L
PLPPpP
1PL$P
t($P$P
P$PptPptPt
t$tHH
t(tLP
ptLtPpPl$P
PL$tH,L$t
pP($P
,H,pPLlxlH
LPp,H,tpT
PtLxl
x,tpPpPtLt
Pp$TH
$,PHt(
Ppt(t,tt(
,LPPH,
,$t($,(P
$tLtH,HPpH
PPH,t(,
xPxtLtPp,
xHt,p,HT
tLtLt
PPLPH
(t,LPL
(tl$tTL
H,P$,H0
$t,$t(
Ltp,tLP
P$t(l
PP(H$
TtPHPP,
$,$LtH
HtLt,lP
xtPLtP
PPpPt
PPpH,lL
,$,l\
l,LPHP$
pPLl,$tP
PLHPL$P
H,t(PL
t$PPp$PH
UtLtx
P,tLPP
PP(Pp
Pp,t$HPptt
PLPL$,(
ttL$PP
tp,(t$,P
,,$,Ltp,l
tHP$t(
$PpHHP
LP$xPptPpP
Pt(tTtL
ttp,t(xt$
,tL,PLPt
$tPtH
ttLtLl,(,t
LPpPpxl,(H
PH,ptp,$
,ptLt$P
TttLt
t$PLHt
t,lP,
P,LPH,pH,
HPp,PPxPtP
PtHPP
PtLPL
xHttL
H,pHt
HPLP(
H,PHPt
P$t$t
HPHPH,L$P
H,L$P
$PLt,xHt(
P($l,p
lTtL$Ltt
p$PLHPLPpH
t(t,Lt,
p,Pp$
tLPLt
,tPp,pHt
tpPLtPLt
LttPpt
tLPPtLtp$
tLt,t(
t$t(tt$,PL
,t(PPLHP
$,$,t(
t$P(Ht
$,$t(HH,$
HPHtPLtHPp
,$,p,$P(t
xPLPt
ptLtP
ptpPP,
,pPyP
,PtLtp,
Tt(t(
Pt(,LPLt(P
,P(t,p$PL
T$,($
ltLt(t
,H,,(
H$PLPP$,
L$P,L$t$
(t$tL
H,H,$,LH,p
,$PLPtHPtL
xPxp0
,pPt(H
PPp,t
,p,tLP$,pP
PL,t(
(t,H,$
pHtLt
Ht(t$P($$,
L,LH,p,$P(
tP$t$$PL$
,LH,l,
HPLHt(HP(t
Ptp,pP
PpTtP
tLPPpPtHHt
,LPLPp$t
LHPp$t,$tP
p,H,p,L$
t,pP$P
HP$tL
H,$,$$
,p,H$PH
,H,HPH
LH,$P
PLPl,$PLP
(P$,P(tP
ttPLt,xtLt
,L$H,
($,,pPPL$P
PHtPL$,p,p
tLPHH
,$,$t(PH
tHH,LP
lPHtLPLtH
(tLt,pPpPP
t(HPHPt
t(H,p,$
,pt(P
LH,pPtH,
lP,$$,P
$$,Q($$
,Lt(PLt,
PHPpPPLtP
HP,Lt,pPxl
tLt$,HPptt
p,(tLl
PtH,PHPP
,p$,$$
H$,$P
t(tpt
,tLt,L
$t,p$xPPLt
tLPLt
tPptPpP,pP
lt(,P
tHP$,$
t$tLPl,
,pPpPptLlP
tPPlPt$P(t
,HPLt
P$,H,p
PL,LHPLPLP
(t(H,
,H,PL,
PpH,PP
,HH,t
t,PHP$,
tptPx
PpTtp
(ttPp
p,pH,LP
LtPL,HHtl,
HPH,p
PptHt
P(,HPP
,L$,y0y
(H$P($t$
P(HP$PL$
$,pPp,
pHPtL
tPp,tP
HPPLPp
P($P$
pt,LtpPPL,
$t,P,
,pHtL
,p,tp0y
tptPtpPL,$
PHPptL
,LPp$PLPt(
H$PLP$tPt(
P,ptLtLH
p$PH$
PLPH,LP
1U-T$
,p,lPU
PtP(t
(P$,tHPLPL
PL$,LPt,p,
$,pHPL$PH,
$,LlPL,HP(
(PPpPp$H
PLtt$,PL
,$,P(t
,pPHPL
t(H,H,$H
,$$tLP
pPLPtLt
$ttHxP
Pt$PL
,p$tLt
Lt,$,
$,H,L$,t
$PH,p
pt(PH$P
$,(H,
HHP$,l,$,
t(ttL,LP
tPPLttL
$PpPp,LPt(
Ht$PH,HPl,
pHP$P
P$tLH
PpPp,p,
P(PHPp,p
tH,p$HHP
L$t(P
tp,p,t(t
yTtTy
,pPt(tP
Pp,tL$xPp$
tL,pP
PH$,Lt($,x
L,t$t$t,H
$$t(H
$t(tL$
PHPLPPL
L,Lt$PLt$t
PLPLt
,Ht$tM
Pt(tPLt
,HPPH,L,t
l,$PHTHPp,
H,Lt$
HttlPPHt
(tLP(lt
PPLtP
$,Ht(tl$
xPt(P(t
t$$,PHL$
PLP$,H
,(tH,LPL,
tLt$,pP
tp$tL
(t,H,$t
P$PLH,,pPP
L,tp,(t
ltHtLt(
,PHPP$P
,p$,H,
(tH,H,
Pp,P(tpH,L
$tP$P
H,H,p
xlPLPP(t,
$,t(tH
$,H,pP
PxtPplT
,tLtp
$PH,Ht$$
PptLt$t
,tH,H,L
xPt(tt
,pxtLtH,t
PLH,p
,pPPLtP
LPtpP
,tL$t(PP
PtHt(P
pPpt(PH,pP
(t$PLP
$P(H,PL
PPLPt
Pt,tL
tLt,t
(tLttL
,p$PU
,pt,t
pPPpP
$t(,,pt
TttpTttpPx
pPPLtpPLP
ttLtHPP
ltL$tLPPpP
tLH,pPtPpP
xPtPpx
tpPtPpPt
P(tLPLtPL
Pp,HP
p,tpPP$,t(
H,p,p,pP
tLPLP
ltPPLttLPL
PtLtLt
tPpPP
tt(tLHPt(t
(P($,pP
lPLtP
HxPpP
l,t$t
PpPP$tP
pPt,(t
L,y$,
PptPpP
p,tpPt
tHPtPpPL
ttLtpPtPt
pl,tLPH,
PP(tLt($P
,$tp,pt
$tH,H,
Hx$tL
tl,t(t
PpPtp
PpPt(HP
Lt,LPt
LtPxPHPpt
,Lt(PHPtLt
,t$tt($
$,u(x
$$tLPp
tpPt(
(lPLPt$t
PpPtLP
tPxPLPttPp
tPp,pPtLlP
l,P$P
PpPtP
$PtT$
LtptPpPp
,pPtp
t(tLPLHtHP
LttLtP
tpPptp
tPpPp
xPptPxtp,t
p,lPp
tLtxtPpt,
Pp,t$
$,$,$
pPtL,
pPtPpP$t
xPtLP
pt,p,
Ttt(P
Pp,HtL
(tLtL
Pt(P$$
tpPtT
t(tHPtxtL
,tLtL
PpPtt
t(tHHtp
t,ytt
xPtLtPt
p,tHt
tP(ltpt(Ht
$,pPtLH
tPpt(ttP
,x,PL
tpPL,
t(Ptx,
pt,l,PHt
Lt,tL
,H,t$
Pt$H,$,$
H,t$t
0yT]Q(
L$t$$
PHPpP
,tPL,p
plx$P
$PPLP
Pt,pT
ttpPtpl
lPPpH
PLPtL
Lt,ptP
,T1T,
$tT$P
tLtpt
PpPPHPt
$,$tHP
U,tL$,$
PtxLt
Lt,Lt
PltLt(
PptPp
,lPtlPH
TP,,x
t$,$,p$
H,$Ht
PpPxt
T]L]Y
t($,(P$
PUHtP
HPtpPH
PL$PH,P(
tpPt(tt
ttLtL
LtLPT
t$xPP
$$tptp
Ppt(P
tLPLP
PtPtP
p,t$,Ht
$tLttL
TtPHH
$$P$tt$
Ty\PU
,Lt$,$,H
t,xPp
p,LHx
$,LPtH
Pp,(P$$
t,lPL
$$,p$
tLtHt
PtPp,
$,p,pt,
PtL$P
t(tLttP
$,ltL
Pt(,L
($$,LP
t,(lPp
,P]x]
x,$P$t(
t$,LP
t(H,t
,(t($
(P(P,L
$,T,0P
x,pPt(H,
,p$,,
,t(PPLH,
p$,$,p
$PpPH
LPP(ttP
H$,$x
txP$t
tPtLPLP
P(tPp
,L,,L$
PxTtPtLP
HPpt]
UxUttTPtL
HPlt$
HPL$,
P$tp$,$,p
$$PHt,H,
$$,LH
T1xUx
Ht$t(tT
LtPH,$$,
tHTtT
PLH,p,$$
P$t,$
THtLtt
l,p,P$
pPPH$
,$$x]tL-
Pp$,l
$PTtxt
(Htp$
l,ptPt$
tLtL$
P,$,$
LxPLPp,
HtpPt(
tPpP(tT
$t(tlP
PL$PHt
,ltPpt
PLPL$,$
LtLPP
,ptP$
($PP$P
,t,HTt
tHtHtpt
LtLtH,p,
tLxPp
,tLtLH
P(tHP
PPpPt
$PPx,t
,$P$$,
,LPH,$
PPLt$H,
pPHP(
,ttL,
$$PHt$PLH
,$PP$t$,H,
,$$H,$P(tp
,LtHH,$,H,
$,$,$tHP
$$H$,
(P$tpPp
$01x,
,H,Lt(
yP0T,x
H,ptpPH
HPLHPPL$
$lPHP
,LttP
,TUP(
$P(H$,H,H
P$,$t(PLt
t$$PLtp,t
$,t$,
$PH,$,
$$,p$
tPp,x
L8t9u
$$Pp$,$P
$$tL,$$
tHP$$P
,pttPLPpt
tLPtpH
,t,pP
,L,,U$
$tLtTt
t(,tx,
UTT,yT
tLt$,
$t$PH,pP
$,LHP
LPxH$,
yT0y$
PLP$H,($P
Ptlt($
$,xtL
]TTUx
pTtt(P
t$$tp
$,HPp$tH,$
Http,
p,$$tL,H,p
,L,$t(
tpHPHP
$$lptL
P$tPtLH
tLH,pPtP
pPtLtp
PH$tl
lttp$
ptHPHl$
Pp,t(
t(H,L$H$
LtHTtP
txt,LHP
xU0x]
PPLHP
pHPtpH
LPPp,,t
xPtLx
t(t(H
H,tPp$
THTxPtH,t(
tLtPptt(P
PptPp,P($
$,PLl,
LtP,H
ttpPt
$P(tL
LPPpPtptPt
Ltp$tPlt
TxP0P
xPp,p
t,$PL
,(P1t
L,1P0
PPxPP
,tLtL
LtLtp
PLPxtxPPLt
P$,$$Pp
Pptltp
tPtPp
tpTtT
tp,ttL
UTUTUT01
pPpPx
xPPLt
tPpPx
tPptLt
pPptPt(
LxtPp
tpTtP
$,tp$
pPtpPtLt(
Pt$,p$t,
PtLtp,
tLPPx
tPx$,
tLttptHT
PHPttT
xPptPLP
($tHxP
p$,t(
tP(Pp
tPptpP
PtLtx
$,p,t
,p$$,P
P(H,$
}0T1P]
TU0,P
$,Ll$
$$,($
$,$$,
Ptp$t
Ht(tTx
p$Pt(l
,tLPt
,t$$,p$
$$P$,pP
,Lt,$P$,$
P$P,$,$,
L$PtL
,$,t$,pP
t(H,$P
PtLxt(t(
,H,H$$P$
$$,LH
,,p,H
t$ttpt
P$,H,HP
$t($,($
$(H$,($H
,PPpH$$,
Tx1x]
p,pt,
xTtH,pPL
(t($$
H,H,P
,lP,p$PH,
TtLPtTPLt
,ltx,P(t
$P(,p,P$
PHPtL$,$
Tt(tt
t(t(t(HT
PL$PL
pPpt$
PLHPLP
$,pP,
P$,pP
P(tPt,pP
$HPL$$,LP$
t(H,tp
tP$$,
P$PL,PH,p
tLH,(Ht(t
p,t,(PLtH,
t(PPL
PPH,P(tP
(P(H,$,(PP
H,L$Ppt$
PLH,p
,H,tHPP
Tx1T-
p,,LH
H,LtP
t(HtL
t,$,p
,H$PLH,p,$
PLP,H,x,H,
LPLPP
TtTt,pP
PPtLt
Pp,tx
t$t$$t
$,tH,(
PL,pP
$t(P$,ptP
1T1,U
Ptp,yPpP$
P(tHHt
LPPt(t
,$,p,
TtHtTt,
PLPPLt,x
P,LP,
t(t(tLtpPp
$tLtHt
t(tLP
pPPpPLP
(P$$PH$,$T
pt(tPPLt
,xPtLxP
$Pp,PpP
ttLHP
$$,$Pp
$t,p,$t
pPtpHPL
tLPPp$tLx
t$HP$HpH,p
PL$t(
p$PL,ltPLH
Ptp,P
,LPPLt,
U0Q0P
xtLtP
ttp,P,pPPp
PL$t$
$,$P$tLPL
xHt$TtLHPp
p,pPPt
,tLtP
PL$t,$,PL
HPPLt,tL
,p,tLt$HtP
,pP$PLt
,LPHPp$t(P
t(ltLPLP
ttp$Pt
p,LPLt,
PxHPxPt
t(HP$
PPpt,p
PLP$,
,P1t0
t(t,,LP
t(tLtPLPP
tH,(tL$
Pp,tLtp,t(
t,H,ptLt
Px,Lx
tTt$t
P$,$t
H,pTtp
Ppx,x
t(tT$t(t
$$,pPL,t
PH,tLPL
$LPHT
,tptLt
,xPt(PPtLP
tLtPL,H$PL
Ppt,p,t
LPtLtTP
Lttp,H$,
LHPL,tHU
U,0x,1
pPptPpPpt
PLHtLt
tLPt(,,
PL$,L
tTttL
0PLt0
,$tpP
,pPxHP
H$xPt
tpPtLt
LtpPt
L$tLPP
pTtPt
Pp,tP
xtLttPpP
0UTPx
U,0x9tT1
P]T-T,
tPxPtHp
\y8UU
0U8,x]
T0P]T
0U,U0y
,U,1P(
,0,y,1x
xU\,UU
1PUP1
p332-4
ftsTitleOverride
Seeing the Invisible (page 4)
ftsTitle
Electron microscopes are capable of magnifying objects far greater than optical microscopes. Here a scorpion is examined with a color electron microscope.
Seeing the Invisible (4 of 4)
LANDSAT
The Landsat satellite program launched by NASA in 1972 has provided a wealth of information on a wide range of geographical phenomena - data that would have been difficult or impossible to amass on the ground. The visible and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in sunlight are reflected with varying intensity by different areas of the Earth's surface, such as forest, sea and arable land. The Landsat satellites are equipped with scanning devices that are sensitive to, and able to measure, the different types of reflected radiation. The data collected in this way is transmitted in digital form to Earth, where it can be assembled by computer into images. The data can be processed in a variety of ways, specific features being enhanced to suit the requirements of a particular analysis.
The two Landsat maps shown here are before-and-after' photographs. They are both of the low-land area along the Mississippi River in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi. The first map shows the area before heavy rains in the Southeastern states during March 1973. The second map shows the same area after the rains and the resultant flooding.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
WTN.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"WTN"
defaultPage
fName
).tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Electron microscopesn
**++*
p334-1
ftsTitleOverride
Computers (page 1)
ftsTitle
EDSAC (1946), containing 3500 valves, was the first stored-program computer in operation. It is seen here with its designers, Maurice Wilkes and W. Renwick.
Computers (1 of 3)
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a predetermined sequence of commands to produce a desired result. Initially computers were seen solely as devices for performing mathematical calculations, but they have far exceeded the expectations of their original designers. Almost any kind of information can be represented in a form that can be handled by a computer - letters of the alphabet, dots that form pictures, telecommunication signals and graphs, to name but a few.
In order to manipulate information, computers are fed instructions known as programs. There are many different types of computer program (collectively known as software), all of which tell the hardware (the machinery of the computer) precisely what to do at some point in the process of communication or data handling. The machine does exactly what it is instructed to do by the software, only much quicker than a human - hence the illusion of intelligence.
Any computer has four essential elements: (1) a storage device to record data; (2) a processor to manipulate data; (3) an input/output device to get data into and out of the machine; (4) a program to control the process.
Types of storage device
All data is stored and manipulated in a computer in binary - a number system that uses just 1s and 0s. Each of the binary digits, or bits, is represented by an electronic circuit, or other device, that can have only one of two positions, either 'on' or 'off'.
Bits are grouped into bytes - the fundamental unit used to determine the address, or location, of an item of data in the memory of a computer. Most computers use 8-bit bytes. Modern computers often have large amounts of data and programs that are loaded when the computer is built. This data - which can not be changed by the user - is called ROM (Read-Only Memory).
A ROM is one type of integrated circuit or chip that is used to make a computer. Each of these chips is a single piece of silicon that has millions of transistors within it, all interconnected to form an array of circuits, in which each tiny memory circuit stores a single bit of information. Complex chips of this nature are constructed using VLSI - Very Large-Scale Integration.
Computer memory that can be changed is called RAM or DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAMs hold the data as a static electric charge that must be refreshed regularly before the charge leaks away.
Information that is to be kept on a long-term basis, or even removed from the computer, is stored on magnetic disks or tapes. These store a signal in exactly the same way as a domestic tape recorder. Computers can also use a modified form of compact-disc player called a CD-ROM to hold large quantities of read-only data. CD-ROMs can store 600 times as much information as can be held inside the computer or on a removable magnetic disk, for about the same cost as an audio CD. They are used to store directories and other reference material. A further development is CDI (CD-interactive), which allows interaction between program and user.
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* NUMBER SYSTEMS
* SETS AND LOGIC
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1-11-1
-11U1
1Y11-1
11y1U
11-11
-)U1y-
U1U1U
1--Y1U
11-1)
11UU1
1-,1-
-1,U1U-
1-1-0
1U11-
-(1-1
U1-11
--1-,-
,1-1-
1-1UU
-1-11
--1-1
U-U1U
1-,1-
1-,-1
1-1--
11-0-
-1U1U
P1Q1-11
1U11-
1)1-1011U1
11Q1--1U1-
-1-1-11
-1-1-
11Q1-1
1M1--1Q
11-11U
U11--
U-y--1y
y11)U
U11--
11y1y
0-11U11Y
1)1y1
1-11-11
-1-1U
-1yU1
--0UU
11U11
--1-1-11-
1UU11
--011-1
M--11y
1U1y1-
-1-11-1
1,-1--
-U-1-
1-11-
1--11U
1)-,-
--1-0
1)--1,-
-1-1-1
1-1Q1
-U-1-1
1-11-1
01y1y
1-1--
U1)U-1
1-1-UU
1U1y1
-1-1Y
-1-11
1U1-11
)1U1-11Y1-
1-1U1U
U1Y1-
U1-1-11-11
U1UU1
1-,--
1y11U
11U11--1
-,-1-
1Q1Q-
11)11
11-11-1-1
1-1UU1
1-1-0U11U
1-U1-
1,--1
1-1U1U1
1-1--1
U-,1-1
-11-1-
1-1-U
-Q1--1
1U-1-11
U1-1-
-U-1-
U1-1-
--1)Y
11U-11
-U-11
-1U11
-1L1-
-11U-1
1U11M
1-U1U1
Q1-1-,
--11Q
-1-11
U11U1y
1U1U1
-,-1)1
--1--
1--,-1
-11-y1
1-U1Y-1
11Q1-
11U11
--1-1
-11Q1U
11y11
11U11
11)1Q
--1-1
-U11M
-11-1
U11U-1U
-U-1-1-
U1-U11
-1-1-y
-1U1U1
U-1U11)
--1-1
Y-11-
)11U11-
-Y1y11
U-11-1
--1-11Q1
T1-1-
UU-y1
)Y1y1U
-Y-1U
-11Q1U
1-U11U
11Q1-
U1-1-1-
Q]-U11
1-1-1
-1-11
-11U1
1y1U1
y-11-1
11U11
11U1U
1-11Y11
1-1-1-
Y-U1-1U
-U-U-1-U--
1)U-1
11U--11
-1-y-U11
U11U1-1
1U-11U
-11Q1
y-1U1U
U11y1^
-1-U1-1
1U1U1
1-1-1-0
-11U11y
)U1y1y1
y11UU
U-11-1Y
-11-11U
y-1-1
--1-11-11-
1y-11-
1U1]-
--,-0--0-
U1-U--1-
-1U11U
-11-Y-
1U1--
1-11-
1U11-1Q11
-1-]U--11U
)Y-Y-
-11U-1
1-1U1U11
-11Q--1-1
UU1-11
-,1-1T
1-11-1
-1-11-1
-0-01
11-11)
1U1U1
0-1-1
-1U11
11-,1
y-1-y
-1-11U
)Y1y1
11-1--1)
-1-1-1-
1-11-
--1-1
--,--1
--)-,
-1-11
1--1--
-1-1-U
U-11,1
)U11-
-1-1-
11-1--1-1Q
y-,1-
Q11-1-1
11(1-11-U
--1-11--
Q11Q1
1-11-Y-
-U1y-
11U-U
1y1U1
,U1-1-1-
1--1--1L1
-1-Y-1
-U11-1-1-
U1-1-
Y-11-1-11
U11U11
-1-1-11-
--Y1Y1
-11)1-1
1-11--1
1U1-11
11-1-
1-1-1-
Y1y11
-1-1-101-1
)1-1)
y1)11-1-
1-11--
-U-11
11-1-1U
1U11--
Y11--
11--11
11U--1-11-
1-1-1
y-11--
-11-110-,1
U-1-1
-1--1
11)11-11
1-011U
Y1-11
U1U11-1
-1-1-
-1U--U
U-11Y1-11)
-1-011-Y-1
1-1M1-
-1-110
-11Q-
11--1-
1y1U1
--1-1-
-1--1
-11--
-11U11
U11U-
1--1-
-11)1,1
-11M1-
11-U11U
M1--,U
)1Y-Y1
-11(-01-1
1y-11
1U--U-
Y11y-
11-1-11-1-
Y1U1U1U
11y1-
--1-1-1
U1U-U-
U11-1
-1U1-
-1-1U1
(-1UY)
-1U11
1--11Y
1-1-Y-11-1
1U11-
-1-11
-1y-1
-U-UU1
U-1-11-11-
1-0-1--1-
-11U-1
-11-1-
11-11
(1]1-
11-1-
-1-,1--1
-11-1T1-
1-1-1--
11U--1U11-
11U11-
1,--11)U
11-11--
-1-11
-1-0-
-11-1-1
11-1-1
U1U11-
11U-11y
1--1U
-1-0-1
--11U
Y11U11U
QY-0-11--U
-1-1-
1U-1-
--11-11)
-1-11
1U,1-
--11-1-1U1
1y11U
--1-1
--11--
-1y-U
1-11--
1--1-,
1y1)U11
11--1-
11U1U1-1)
11)11M1
1y1U--U
-11-1
U11-1
-11-1U-U-1
-1-11)
-UU11U1
11-1-
1--U1-1U
-01-11
1-1--1--
Q1-1U-1-1-
-1-U1
1--1Q11
11Q1-
y11-Y
U-11)
)-U11
-U11U1
1-,11
-1-1)-1
11-1-U
U1--11
U-1-1
1--11M
1-1-1U
-1-11
1-U11U1
1-11--
U11--1
11-11-1
1M1-1(
1-1--1
1--1-1
U0-11-
11-11)-1-1
-11-11
1--11
--U11U1
-1Q-1
1--11-1-11
1U11U1
U-,-1-
11011-,1
-11-1
1-1-1-
1M1,-
U11-11-1
1-1-,-1-U
1-1-1
Y-1-1Q
0-11(-
Q--11(1-
1-1-11-11,
1-1-1
1-UU1
-1U1U1
1-11U
U11-1-
1-1-1-
1-11-1
1-,--1
-1--11
-1U11-U1U1
--1)11-1
1,1-1
--1-1-1-,1
-11-1-1
1U-U-1-1-
1-1-01-11-
-11-0
-1-1-11
-1--1U
-1-,-1
U1-1-1
QY)11-1
11-1-1-
-1-1U
U11-11-1
-11U1
1y1y1
11--1Q11-]
-1-1-
U11-1-
P1-1U
1U--1,
-11-Q1,
-1-11U
U1Q-,-
U11U1U1
-11-1
1U-11
Y-1-1U1-1
1--1--1
1-1-1-
U1U-1
,11--1-
1-1-11Q1
1-y-1
UU-1-
-1U11U
11-1--1-1-
,-1M1
1-1-1
U11-11-U
10U-1
1-11-11-1-
11U11
y-1-1-
11--1QY
1(--11
1-1-1--11(
-11-Y-
-U-U-11Z
11Q1Q
11-1Q-1
Q1-1-
--1-,
1-11-U1
-11Q11)
--1P1
1-1U1U1U1
1y1-1
1U-1Q1
-011-1
-1-11
U1-U1
y1-1Q
1-1-1-1
U1-1-Y
1-,1-Y-1
T1-1P
--1-1M11
U1-11
Y-U1U1
1U-]-y
-1-1Q
1U11-1-1
1-1-1
-Y1-1-
-1Q1-1
11)1-011-
U1,11-1-1-
--11-11
-1-1-1-0
-11)1-
1U1--1
--1-1
1-11-11-11
-1-11
-1-11
1--1Q
1]1UU
--11)
-1-1-1
1-11--
-,1-11-
U-T1-
1U1U11y
11-1-
11-Y-1-U
-1U11U1U
U--1-U
--,1)
11-U1
-T1-1
1-01-
-1y11
Q-1-U
-11--1
1--1,
1]-U1
11-11-U
Y11-1-1
1-11-Y-
-y-11y
)1U-1-1
1-1-,1
,1)-1-
11--1-1
1)--1
-1--1
U-Y-1
-1-1-U1
-1-1-1-11
Y-Y-11y--1
11U1U1
1101U-,1-1
1-1--
1-1-1
-1-1-1-Y
-1-U11-1
-11-1U
y1U11
-11-1-1-1
-1-1U
T1-1-,1-1
-1-11Q
,11-11-U11
-U1-U
11--1--
1--1U1
-,--U1
-11-U
1-1--1
11-1-
-11-1
U1-1U1U
1y1y11U1
p334-2
Computers (2 of 3)
The processor and microprocessor
Many powerful computers use large numbers of integrated circuits mounted on printed circuit boards to make the processor. Microcomputers use a processor that is all on a single chip - a microprocessor. Microprocessors were originally de signed to be used in, for example, digital wrist watches, desk calculators and control circuitry for washing machines and video players.
Each instruction that the processor executes manipulates the data through operations such as the addition and subtraction of values by setting and clearing individual bits. It then selects which instruction to execute next by testing the results of these operations.
Computers are now classified into the following categories: (1) microcomputer - this has a single-chip processor; (2) minicomputer - a computer (often used for small office networks) that is intermediate in capacity between a microcomputer and a mainframe; (3) mainframe - the most powerful general-purpose computer; (4) supercomputer - a computer designed specifically for speed.
Software
The program is a series of coded instructions held as numbers, each of which makes the computer perform a simple movement or manipulation of an item of data.
Machine-code programming is the most detailed way of programming a computer. It involves coding the instructions in numbers that can be directly obeyed by the computer. Programmers write the instructions in groups of three or four bits, and since each group can have 8 or 16 values, these systems are called octal and hexadecimal.
Gradually a method of writing down programs was developed using mnemonics (a device to assist the memory) instead of numbers. A special program, called an assembler, takes the original text, written in mnemonics, and translates it into binary values for the machine-code instructions.
However, programming in this way still relies on an intimate knowledge of the internal workings of the computer. FORTRAN and COBOL were the first high-level computer languages to be used that did not require a programmer to be familiar with the details of how the computer worked.
Most programs contain errors or bugs. Discovering and removing bugs is both difficult and time-consuming. Some computer languages - such as BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), which was developed as a language suitable for beginners - speed up debugging by interpreting each line of the program just before it is executed. This avoids the need to recompile the program after each bug is traced and eliminated.
As computers became more sophisticated, the need arose for the manufacturers to provide an operating system to control access and to assist the use of the machine. A typical operating system includes utility programs for common operations and a method of storing and filing information on a disk.
There is now such great demand for software that programs must be written using still higher levels of abstraction. Fourth- generation languages (4GL) have been developed to enable a programmer to describe the problem and the data, and to leave the computer to write the actual programs. Although this may produce programs that are less efficient, it makes the best use of the most valuable resource - the human programmer.
'Off the shelf' programs are called applications. The most common type on larger computers is the database, but small computers are predominantly used for word processing. A database allows information to be collected, stored, classified and looked up at random. These types of actions require a large mass of information to be stored in an organized way. Modern database programs use some form of standard 'structured query language' (SQL) to express what information is required from a database. Other popular types of programs include the spread sheet, which produces the results of elaborate calculations on rows and columns of numbers on several sheets, computer-aided design, and multimedia educational programs that combine sound, words and visual displays.
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* NUMBER SYSTEMS
* SETS AND LOGIC
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Computers (page 2)
ftsTitle
%m%&m%m%m
%m%m%m%m%%
m%%m%m%m%m
%m%m%m%m%%
m%%m%m%m%m
%m%m%m%m%%
m%%m%m%m%m
%m%m%m%%m%
%m%m%m%m%m
%m%m%m%%m%
%m%m%m%m%m
%m%m%m%%m%
%m%m%m%m%m
%m%m%%m%%m
%m%m%m%m%m
%m%m%%m%%m
%m%m%m%m%m
%m%m%%m%%m
%m%m%m%m%m
%m%%m%%m%%
10101
1-11U1
10101
10010
101010
0101010
10101
11-1-
y)z(y
-()(y
qyy1q
10010T1
m&%%m%%
m&%m&%
I%%m&
m&%%m
%%I%%z
)%%r)%z
11-1-1
100100100U
1001001001
001001
001001001
1001001001
1001001
T1001
-1--1
--1--1--1-
-1--1--1--
1--1--1--1
--1--1--1-
-1--1--1--
1--1--1--1
--1--1--1-
-1--1--1--
1--1-
--1--1--1-
-1--1--1--
1--1--1--1
--1--1--1-
-1--1--1--
1--1-
--1--1--1-
-1--1--1--
1--1--1--1
--1--1--1-
1--1--
1--1--1--1
--1-1-
p334-3
ftsTitleOverride
Computers (page 3)
ftsTitle
Part of an integrated circuit, or silicon chip, color-enhanced and magnified 110 times, showing two connecting wires bonded to terminal pads on the edge of the device. The small squares at the end of the two tracks running between the pads are transistors, which act as switches to control the input and output to the connecting wires.
Computers (3 of 3)
Increasing performance
Between 1950 and 1990 computer performance increased about one million times. The speed of the basic circuitry improved only about 10 000 times; the remainder of the improvement came from changes in the internal organization of computers.
The amount of work done in a processor as a result of a single instruction is determined by word length - the number of bits that are processed at a time. The earliest microprocessors handled only four bits at a time, although the first general-purpose microcomputers had eight-bit words. Common computers now use 16-, 32- and even 64-bit words, and are correspondingly more powerful.
Most computers can be made to operate faster by making things happen in parallel. A well-designed computer has all the parts working at the same instant of time; however, many low-cost computers have very fast memories and processors, but relatively slow disks. Various techniques, called caching and memory-resident disks, have been developed to try to restore the balance.
Supercomputers have been designed to operate at very high speed. Many computers that are used for military purposes are specifically designed for their task and have very high performance. They perform tasks such as tracking aircraft on radar. In practice, the maximum power of a computer is limited by the heat that it generates internally, and by the time taken for a signal to travel within it. Research is currently being conducted into replacing electronic signals within computers by laser light. If successful, this promises to produce even more powerful computers.
LANDMARKS IN COMPUTING
1790 Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) used punched cards to control a weaving loom.
1842 Charles Babbage (1791-1871) de signed the Difference engine - a semi-automatic mechanical calculator.
1890 Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) suc cess fully used punched cards to record the American census.
1941 Konrad Zuse (1910- ) made a mechanical computer complete with mechanical memories and arithmetic units made from relays.
1945 COLOSSUS I was developed to decode secret messages during World War II.
1945 ENIAC, the first general-purpose machine was designed by J. P. Eckert and J. W. Maunchly. It was used to calculate the trajectories of bombs and shells. ENIAC had 18 000 valves, weighed 30 tonnes, consumed 140kW, and occupied 85 cubic metres.
1946 EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), the first stored-program computer in operation. This machine was similar to the EDVAC, designed in the USA by a team led by John von Neumann (1903-57).
1947 Transistor demonstrated.
1952 First use of germanium semiconductor diodes in a machine called Gamma 3.
1957-59 Programming languages such as FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator), ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language), and COBOL (COmmercial Business Orientated Language) were introduced.
1958 First computers to use transistors, e.g. Elliott 802.
1964 First integrated circuits, e.g. IBM System 360.
1965 BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) - the most common interpreted language - developed by Kemeny and Kurtz.
1965 Digital Equipment made the PDP-8, the first mass-produced
A SIMPLE COMPUTER
In this simple computer the control unit works its way through the following steps at each clock interval: 1. The control unit uses the address of the next instruction to read an instruction from RAM memory and loads it into the special store called the instruction register.
2. The control unit then determines the type of instruction. If it is arithmetic, then the control unit will select the appropriate general-purpose register and connect its output to the inputs of the ALU.
3. Next, the ALU will perform the required operation and the output is connected by the control unit to the input of a general-purpose register where it is stored.
4. The control unit fetches the next instruction and executes it as above.
Similar sequences transfer data between the registers and the memory, or change the address of the next instruction to be read.
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* NUMBER SYSTEMS
* SETS AND LOGIC
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
atP)y,y,L,V^
TP$$PL,x
_:^;^
:;: ^
T,y,Q
1-Tu1*:Q2R
$,P0\
?^ ^
; :_
L,x1\19H
^^::
:^?^
PPLTP
x$--T,x$
$$$$xTxT
>WbbC
:^?> ;^
: bCb 1
,q,T-L,$
t-L,M,x1V.
; >_?
-1lV111
t$11-1
1PL,
Q(Q,$UP(
1---1
>_:
(11$11
;:_::
b:c::b
)x,TTu--,U,
^_bf;
$11P1-x
UPP$$
:::^
:;::b;
>_b ^
-Q01-
t-1(11l
$$QL,P
L,t,L
^ 2c:;:?^
:^?^ _
^?: :
U,(-0,Q(y0Q,y-2
x\P$-
1-11(11
,P,H,H-
f::^
,,pTP
p0HUP0uT%P(11x-1
1$11p11
3 ^;^:?
^;: :_:?
_ :;^?
^ ^ :
$PQ1,L-P,(Pt-
T-(UT
PL,,p
P,$U1],
VC^3b:;
t1Q(t(P
-UQ,(Q(t,1U(T
P9PTH
$TP:-xPT$,$
$,($y9
2:V>_
^_^:?: ^^?:^_
?b :
xTP(Q,
t)PTQt1-,tu
0$$$0H,L
$,Q)-
HPHPT,t
: 2>^
(PtxU
Q$%P)
Pxt($1$
cV :_:?
^;^_^
:_^?^:^b:y
PTP0,
xtyPTU
--pUt(t$T$,(
^;:
^;^>;
$,L-QT
0P(t(H
p,p4$T
0P,L$H
T,L$P(tP
2_2^;
cb^;:
t-PyLx
U,1Q(
$xt(xP$
t(PLu>2
: :^^_
:_^?_
^:c ^
tU$Q(0
0$,P0$0
--U-V
>^: :_: :2
;^ :
^ :>;b^ ;^
,L-x1Q(-0P,
l,L$l
PTa,]
;^:;:;
;b;^:
b_b2?: ^_:c: 2b:;:c
;: ::b;
y,y,QTP(1P0t-P1x
]U8uU
$1T,lt(l
Q^,Tt0$
_:^ :^;
:^; ^
:^;b^
P(,-L,P%
1M1P)-
P0$,L
-0H0U,P
;: ^_2B_>
2;:c^c:
,(P-L
PPL,L
>V 2b
B3b;b
^ :
t$,P(Q(t10,t,p
,Q-M,-.
$L0P-
$,tLt
?^ ^^;^?V
6?^>_
,M,u(0P0tq0
1PU-1
Pp$PTltl
;^;z:
fc=1-
(-QLP
,u$,LPP
P(P(P
H,HT,
_:_^c:
_^c:^;^?
>_:_:
;^;^:
bc9$x1U0l
,T,p,T,,
P(U,y-(P1,H,
-:Q0y
HxPPLT
b_::c
;b_ >
$1t)PPL,p$
0P0$0P(,-,T,U,-
P,p,,
$,P)P$
,T$,L,p
$,L-x$P
^;b:
2_:c:
::^:b
1(P,,MPtLt
$,)P0H,-,L-H,
P,P$P1,-
\%9-U$
P-H,$$T
\U1QH,(,1M,
^?g2
Q0,t,
PM,L-L0
,tLxl
,pPx-
xQU->
_>V?^
l,L,M,L
p,$]P(P
(0,yT
,xPLl
1PLl,
H,t(P
1y$,H
-LPpP
;b;^?
?^;b3
t(P),xP
$-(QH,LPt--,T-p
)Q0P-
U9Qp1
P$,$P
u]pPt$
QT,TQ
W:;::cB_
_:_^::
?:_: :
-,TP$0PTtP,M
t0$Q,(,P$,$
H1t,L
^ 2:b?2
^?: :b: f
M,P,QPM
TPUP(P-
1P)P(P1
MQ,UPt
)P,$1-l
_^:_^
^;>
:c:
(11tL-11PLP,-$,M
$$H$$
^ b:_
(Pu(P,tTt1$y,
$P0lx
THPU0y
^ 2f;
^ :_:>;
:b :_:
U01UPP(P
1xTPL-TTt(P)
$x0Q1
u0t0H
-0PLy$
^b3B^;
bWb :>c^ :;:
y,)TPPH0Q$P,LPP)Q
HPLPPPp,
yUfz]
b : :
:^;
0PT(QPL-P(-
,(,,L,,($
$$,L,$
,xPL$-,],(
$,HUty
(ltxtp,P
?V?^>
:: zC
z:1>2
: ^_:
(P(,P,p,P(t,lP$,pPP(P-0,$
tLP$PtT]H
H,-1U
>2_: :?
:;Z>
c^^;:
,U1t11UPL,,
,(-M,(Q,H0
(P,L0,t)
tt(Py
$,l0-9-9
{>VB_>
b;b_^
b:_ :
: :: :]$0PT
l,PH-
P(HHP
;bV :
:^::^_
?^ :_
H,pQUPLP0y$$t
xP,(,P,L
(1-9-
2c2c: ^
:_b^?
2_: :
b^;b
H,p,t
1P0,L-RT
$Uy,P
,-,11
P$,p:
PH1L0,
:Vc:^^_
>;^:
LPPPtLx,,-,
xPL,,$P,P
,t(P-
PQUx,M,P
T$x-T-
2:Vb^:
2 >CV :;b_c :
$1Hx,(,x
$PPL,
; ^ :_>^fV:_b
b_:_>
0,TPH,1P0,UU1
H0--,pPP-qP,,L
PH1P-
0$,t$t
0Hu,P
:>:_:>
>^_>3c:;
,L,(,t
T,t(,L,LPq
LPyQx
_ _:;
W>^ :^?
^_^?:^
PTP(P
,$,$ty,(TPTPt-
,H,L,P(P
,(tLy,
t(,L,-0
$PP,P
>^ ^c:b? ^
_b^c :T1
$Pp,,T,p,
,T,p,$(yPT
$,LPy,P
?^ Vf;
_>; :_: ^
$TtPp,
L-PP$
(y-y(t,
$,LH,U
^;^ ^
2 ;^;
2;bWf;
?b:H-1
^_u0Q1$
,L,L,(P0,T,PLQ-P
,H,pPP
x0PP(
]HHPp
$H,,U
:V?^?
>_:c: 2
2b:
^;^ ^
:c:c9U
^^z),P(,$
PP-,0t($
tlPtM
?V^c>
;:;:b_
;b^?
^b;b;b_b
0t,xP
PL$Pt
:bVc^
b: :c^c-,
H,LT,
P$tT0$Q,L,
>_: :
: ;V :^_b;:_c
_b2b:?:
^ :::
QPU-T
,,U,(
H,$]P
^::^:V:
^>^ ^ :^>
?VC^ ^c:?2
$P(,LQ
tU,t)
$,L,L,$
$1 ---T
$2V2^:^ ::^ ^b
^ :c^_
T$tPx
_V :?
_: :;b
^ :c^c: :>:_:
$,L]x
P0,xub-
;b: b
^c:^
-0P$:-0
,$-LP
]U11t
UPy,2
19$x$0$
$,Hp0P
^cc
; :c:
$0HH$
(,LUy
:ccf
^>: ^c^:
;; : ^b:c
x,$,x
l,H9P9q
6c:_
^^ ^;b;
$H(P(
yQ9$tP
tLPLP
P,LTt0
^ : ^^?:
_ :c:
_^ :;
xTT-]`
txPxx
$0,Lt0PP
$T,L0
1]^;^?:c^c
^^b:c: ^
?^ ^>
1PH,$t(
$,$,p
H,x,p$
Tt$H-L,,p
,LxPtL,$
:c:?^ :_^ ; :?
_^^;:^>;
HPl,,p
Py,LUy
P(t$,
V>;b;
^;^:;
9HPU,
UP0$,
tx,TPL
b >
^b;b_
:?^;^c
$$$,P
:>^?:
y0y,t$
YL$Ht
^. : :c^?^^
b;: :_::c:;^_
^:^_^
H,L,$T
TTP9$H
:;b:
b_ :c:
b_b; :c^
^ >;^
t$,L,$
Z;^> :
;^::;^:
_:^;^;b
_:V:_
Qp1P,$P
>^ > ^b; : :
^_b^_ :b;b;
2 :^
xu0$T
$$$$L
; b:;:c^ :;
?^;:^ :_
0PPH0
tP$$P
1U0x,
>f: :
^;^ :
;^:b_^
>_:_:
P($,:L:11
>cb
:; ::;
_^:_2
^_^;:
^:3b:
$$,L,L1x>
Q0xPx001P
::;^_
3^:c:
P19xU$$t
q-(y0t
$$,L,t
:V2^:
--PLl
^>Vf_::>
^ :^;
:_:^;
9] bf >
b bc:>:^;
::c:
MPx1:^
P$$,$,HP
Q]af>
:?^;zb
t,pTx
^:_::
:2 ^;
^Vb;>:b_>
1T,x$
P(Tbb> ^
$$,LPp
uUT$0U
_>_ :
:^;>_
:^: 1
$t]bC>
,00U9
_:^^:
y\$,$,Lx]
^?V;
:WB:^:cf
\P,$$$
:W>^_
1H0P$$$,
UPU1U
1-1-1P-1,
2_2^-TQ(,
:cb :bW^^
$,L,9
?_ ::_>_b
1,-y,PPH
:xPL$HH,
y201t,
,-uy-,
IH\ ?
: :^;b;
$Pt(P(t
P\$Pp
1tQ(H-T
?^ ^;^
$t)U]
1$Ty$$
($P1U
: 2;^>V^
PLP,L
y y]t
U\1Q1
^;^^3
,xPH,L
$$P\H$
;^:_ >:
:?^ ?
U1U9z
I,qPU
PP(1U
1:b;b3
^ 2 ^?
:_:^:
T1PTT,P(u
H,P(9H0P
,pP,LPP(,,-
xxxt\xP(
f b:
H,1-,-
%yT$P
tP$,H,$$$H$
b
,$tPxT
^-T,1Q
$tLP($,
tUPTP-L,L
>;b _b
: ;b:c
T,yy0-
: ^ :b^_^
$,$,HP
(,T,x
tP,$(P
(T]x9U
f; Bc:
: :c:
Pxx--
tl0tTl
P1y]t
> ^ b_
PMQ-,PLtL
$xxTU
2b^c b
bC^
$,0yy0
$Tt(PPy
y,p0x
$P$,t\P0,
$,LPx0
b;:
(P,tPt(
$:-T-M$PP
^2f2b
gV>zg
,$t,L,P
$,,p9
?: ^c
;b_^_
HPtTt
$,p,,
>C^ :?^;
: 2b:?^b_?;
PL,Q1T
b >b
?^ ^c: : 2
,$$,,
$,-L,
B2 : :
VBW>^b:_b
>_:?^;
2:_:_b
P1Yq,P
P,$T0T:
TUU-T
>V :c:
Pltp,ptpTP$,]
? b:c:
z >_^c
: :c: ?
_b;V?^;
c:^
^c:
1u,pPl,t
: :
^?zf^
,P,(x
P$PtT
:bVHPP
P-PPL
g: {b
;b: ^> :>
:> ? b ^ :: _
Utt)T,t(y,
^c^ ^c
c^cVg
UQ$,H
c:b;^:
_?2 :
2c^^?
;b^_
?c:
?B_ :c^c^ :
$Ux,x1tP
$P,U1]]1
?:c2 :
-L$,T-
-^3 2^2:
: : ^c:
^^??^?
bc^_>;
b:^_b
:>: ^
: ;c^ :c:
$0U9y
>^c:
;b^ ;
HPx,P
_ :c2c2 :
^;> ^
: ^c
L$y0,xx,L1P$t
$TxQu
,L0U:
?b ^c >: ^
H,1x,
^c>g: ^
2 ^c:?2 b_
^ >3
: : ^
b_:b2^;b
: :
y$11x
>^ ^_V
>;b2
b ^c ^?^_
b^_bC
:?: :c:
:_: ; ;b:
$0t,,P-
: ?
:?^;^ :?
b ^ ^
:^cB
?^ >^c
: :c_
_b; > ^bB ^ :?: _b;>
,pxUxx
$UQ01
^ :^; ^ :_
c:c^c: ^ ^;
^?::
b^ b
c^^ b_?
;>:c^
^ : ^ :c^ b
:?
P(Q$PHU
V:V_b bg
_:c::c:
-tl,$,lx
y%-u1
;^ :c:_^
?^b:c^
^c: :_
?^ :
; ; ^:;^
>^^ b;:c>
>3 _^^?^ ^c2 : 2
^ ^?:?^ ^>_b
: : f
: :
^ :
:
:^_>
LPL,-,,
:;>^
: :: :
,P$,-
b_b;b>;: :?^?
b; _c^
c^?: ^_
?B; b c
b cf >
:bC
? ^ ^
:c
:c^ :c:
^ ^cb
?^ >
: :cVc
;:^?
:>_ ^
:c: :
b;b; ^
^cfc:
: ^c
^^;>: ^>
$UP-,$
-P,$l
^? ^b
^ ^_:?^
> b cb
:c: ^ :c^ :_:>
:> : ?
^ : :
g2^2C: 2
;V:%-
y,PLt
H1,pP
:;
c
^bgc
: : :c
>cb ^ b
^>
: :b^ _:_
bb :?:
:c^ ^ :?^ ^ bC^
> b
?> ^ :>:
:c: :
>: > >
; ?:c:
>__
;c^ :
V :b;
-PP,$
;^ ^^
c: ^
> >
^?f?^
:_b :
;bC:^?
bg::_>
]$]xTP
:cfc: ?_^ >:_?
> : >g?
^1tLP0,
$PtTU9
^ ^c: ^ ;b
: >B^
_ >
:;b ^ :cb
:c:
:b; ^
^;^:R22
0,L0Px
;]PT0P
(H0P1T?:Va
b bc
c^>C ^ ^cf:
:::
^cb : b:
x,p9t
2c cV
>:b;>
:c?:> :
c^c^_:
?b ^
$t]T00
>_^: ?
: ?^ ;
: >:c:
p,pPpTQ,M
b^ :c:c:
$c ;V
_b :^ ^> ?
^ : >
$$$,x8yaV
cf^?
;::?f^^ :
t9U8^
:c?B_
;>; b ?
>_ :
b_
^ :;
: b^ ^
:?^
Pa]8]
z>fc^
?^
: :^
c b :b
: ^ >B
p,$Plt(x,(
:b > ^cf
_ > ^c
>_:c
:b;?^ :?
^cf^_ >_bc^ bf^
_ :c
]ptTPH
cf:
;c:> b; :
: >
c> >
>c: b^: :
^ >g^
>_>f
:; :
_ : ;b^ :
:_
f c^
:?^ >c:
b :?: 2>V
?^ _
_ :c :b c
UU,,Ll
$t($P
b >
>gbb
?:>_b_c:
:? :?^ >: b^
c:>_ :
x,PLx$,x0P(Q
^_b
:b_
> :_
^?c? >c^
Pp,PLt)PL,pP(P,
b ?b
? >^ ^ b_
^_>;b
>: b
?f :
c^ >c
PyTt-
Bc: _c: : >_:
>c : ^
T,tPp
x,$,P$t,
::_:
> : ^_
:_ b
?^: bC>
:
Ht,L,LP
U])a1
P,pPP
Q)u,pxH
^c:c^c >
:^ ;
HltLt
T,y,pu0Q,LPp,p,H$
L,$,P$
,p,t1]
?^?
b >C ^ ^ : b
TP,P,H,
^ bg:
b:cB_bc2
>:c:
xP-$,p,
,L,P,-
$,pTU9
:c: b
:; bg: : :
xtLPP1bRP($0,
^ ;
^ : :
^;b >
bg^ b
]PL,
ltlP1Px
HTT,U
b >
c: :
>_c b ?
^^ :
? :c
,-$\x
py:,MPxPp
c ^ :c^
>;?^;
> :>f
THTP,(
,p$t,L,L,
$P,LP}
t$PPL
PL0U9
b > :?^
; ^
_: :?
>cB
xTU>]
(PPL,,P(P
0tTtT
b >
c:>
C^ ^ ^_b :c>
>_b
l,$,L-H
tLt11M
(H,,U
$,$P0
c^ ?
U1] b
Tx,yUx,P
? ^ ^
,0H,LPH
(P(H,
P$P(P
P,x,tP
$$Q0yPPx,LPxPx,TPy,P
lt,Lt,L,$
$$,$UT\y
^c^bg
> bb?f
0$0l,L,HtL
,L,tL0PPP(t)t0$
(0P,p,$t
x,pPP,pPLP0$
,L$,T1xU\
?: b
>_: b
0P,$,$00
PT,pP]
>_b>
c^c
^ b_:
P(,lt
,$,,M,($-L$,p-UPx
-y->V
2--m\P1)yQx,)tx-t)TPx01
pu-T$H
^cf_:
$0P\8]2>^
ppPP1
:b b
^ ^ ?B
> :bc
,$tLP$t(,H-,pH
P(HPL,
t,l,-$$
u(:qbV
P]Q]1
$xTU1
c ?f
TUP$P0$H21t$
:
:c^ ^c^
T-xTPTH(,PPL
TPLP,
$t,$,PLlUTUM
1U1U11
> ^
b^?
22y,L,
;>;
>: >
y0Q(u,T,P(
,L,y,H,
x,H1y
1y21-11U2
VP$,pP
V1,yP
TtTQT
tLP,(
P-^ >g
bcfb;
b :c
; b
?: _
-P(PP0$Pp,%x,)
,M]uU^
PH,$(,L$,
lPH,L
Pp,(x
9-LPPLxP
: >^ ^ :c
?bB
^
xp,P0l,(t(]l
$T,(l
uUQQH
,p,0H,p
$9tLPy
y,xPy
>g: ^cB
_b^
P,yPP(,HPU,P
P,x,P
q-$tP
2-,P,
T$,yt
u(HTP
U1,PY
;b^ bbC
:>; bC^>
U^PLP
M,p,P(-P(t(tM
p,,xt$
PH0T0
]U-1P(
P0Pp$
luQ($0
,L]VUT
?^ b Cb;
,pPx$0t
,LTT0
,H,p,$,L
).H]ty
$,HTtLt(
-UU,,UTt,L,
xU-Tt-,
U,9-9
tUQ$,M
PyTxH
?f :?
_ b :cf >C
(PTQ,qy-U1-
H0,x$
U$p,Q(tU
,xTTP
:: cf C
$t$,H1
xP,p,T,Tt\uTH
,Q,$y
-\,Ul-
L00Pt
>
tLx,HPP
$T,T1
PL0-q
?: g ?
^ ?
uTt(PTu]
1U0PHPy
0T8T\
:b :c
TH-$0t
%H0$,
y,TTT
_ >g ^
tL]1)
-pt,l
^c>;b
cb bg
?^ b:_ ?
PPp,Pl
)1UQ--Q1-0
PQb ?
? b b>
? > f >
> >c
1011,UPu
T-xUU
$$$,L,$
P1I-QLt
PU1PP
> :>
U0tyL-,q,
P9xTH0t
x-L0t
?f : > ^b^ bf?
$$PUy
$,$P(
1Q11U1-x1
,Q,uY
(l,PP
dp\tpP
b? b
1L0,,
-1UU--1u(U0-
: >?
-UP,-1T,m0
t1PUQ
b ^
b > ^ :
U-T1U1u
)UQ1P0H0tUP
>_?
bg>_b
PUP$Hx
--0P10
1$THUP1QP
> B :b;
:c:
b ?
Q(P:
11-UP
$HuU,p-yH0
U,UH1PPH0$9t
: > ^
1Q1Q)11
Qx,T%1$U
,p1P)H-
>WB_>V;
?g b_ :c: ?
^:cb
,T,THUP0,xPyP\,xPLH
b ^
? c 1PUT]H
U1H1$1)U$0PUtLQT-xHTPy
PI]Hy
>B
c
^1,^-
Qx-x,UHTPUP1Px-TH1Qx,M-(H
>c _?
^ > >^
1y1P-0,
QxHUPU$
x,LPx
: :c:
Ply^-
-Tx1P
bf ^_ >^ ^ : ? ^
-101-TQU-0uUl1-T,($y,yP
$tL]l,LUl
b >
Q]P9L
HUP1H0-y--
]l]-0u
L,x$t,]U:
PpTy,pU
b2g^c
xUu-U
P$UVb
??^
)11-TH0Q1$]
TP]LQ
P0$xtTQx,yQV2V
?^ ^ :
c^ b c>f ?
y,1P($
,\lyPp
PPT0P
cbc:c:
c: ^?^2
b ^?
c H,
-ITu9Q1I
>Q0P$T
,-HPU0H
^c: :
_ 2g :
\P(,U,
(xPU,\P
QT,xu)$
1P,HT$
:b:?
: >B
x,Ppx,
Q,-8%
$-,U,q-]Ly,
:_*UPTHuL
UUxx,x
2cf?z :
1T-x,
t9P1Q
,TH9t]u31
^?b ^
:c^c?
TPPPT
bg>
f > C^
T,1m1-TPT
xPTtxt(PT
x\TTQ
2 :
T$t,pt
^c^ _ ?
H]L9,\%p,y,1lx,TtTt
2c^c:
;b;b_b>
^ MP]t
TP:1y
^ :c:
b ? z,1M,-
,$]Q8M\u-,L,T,
^v>R>
.LH1Q(m
:cf _b: ^c:c:;:
> b
: b c
$],U,
,)m\t0$$PTt\
?^ :?
c^ : :
T1Lt,t
$0$xPu$T
t(HTPy
;^ b g^
: ^c: >
:c:c: :c^
-$UP$
$1M,QM
^ ^?:?
^ : >
^ :
_b :
^c^ ^?bC
> :?V;:
y]U0P
T%UH,
:?:
^c:
^ :
L,t],
^ :c: : :cf
?^;^;
\-)-00
,(t$1T
>; ^
;b; ^c^
10-PT
-pPx-)
b >
^?^>:
:c_b^ >; b:
: f :>
HUP0x
-Q]t9M3QM
>;?: : : ^
bc^? :_^^; ?
1-1t,
]y>I2
^ :
: :b;>^;
,p-9-
2 :c^
: b_
,L,-PH1
^ :c : >:?
c: ^ ^?^
?^ :
?: :c^
H0-9$0l]U,,
a-:Vc^?
^ :?
:>;
: ?:c:
UtH,1
u)$$P$Q
bV ^c^ >^:
^_>:
:c :b;
:^cz?^
?f_
c:^
> ::_
:;b;
PL,$t
$,$PL
lPLt$]
:c^ : b
:>_b
:>
: ^
_ :>: bW
U1u8M
_?^ zB_b
: >g >
^ :: >
?_> ^>
9xPt\
P,U1P
^ :?Vf
: >
:? : : :^?^^
^ ^: b^;?^
^ ^_^
:b; ;
-1P(1x
$H,\Lt( U
?^ Vc: z
1-0$0P
,u8Q]M:_>
:c: ^
c: :
:: b^ ?
0x,$L
^c:
^ b :^ ^
c: ?^?
; :;b^c:
8H-L0l
c:c^ :
: : b: : ?^ >:
bb_?
>;b :
Vc_ :
V : :_: : :c^ ^
:? :
>;b^ :
^ : >
:_b :
: ^c
: ^c:c^ :
;c^ ;
^> C
cb ^ :
$0P(H
_2 2g2
> ^ >:^
? ^ :
,$$8MU1
_b.>^?: ^>
Vf:c^c^?
^c:
;
$T-y2
^ ^?^?
:c^ : ?^
:Z >g
?:b;^3g2 2 :?:
^c: bB
> >c:
_2c::
?^?^
^?^ ^ :_b
:
x,lt(tT
2 : 2
_b^ :
^ : :c
: :c^ :
: :
: ^:;
b3b2_
;2?^^
?2g :c: :
:c: ^ >:_
:?
> ^cB
^b:;b
:?:c^ : ;b_b:_b
:c: ^?;>
:;V;
^ :c:c
::^?^ :c^ ::c^c
::c :: bc::
^?f ^
:b^c:>
?: :?^ :
:c:
:?^_: > ^
?VB;^_ :
^?z :c:_
>c: :
? >_ >; :
c^ >C
:c^c
>^;: :
^?_ ;>
?^:_::_
,$:V :^;^
:c^ :>; :
? ?^ ?^_
cf; b b
^ : ?^ :_>^
c^ : :?^?
>^c^
b;^;c
: ^b:^;
> ^ ?^
:W> ; b
? ?:c
:c^ :?
>_^ _:
>^ ;>_ : ?^ >^c
;: >_:: :_::^c
:: >_
c:c> ^
b^c>C
^2^;>3^:>_:^
>: :>
_>;b>g>
^^ ?:
^?:
cf ^ :
^::_b:
:> : ;c
BV_:
: ;bC ::?^ ^^:b: :c^
b :?
^?^
;^>^
b _>;
: :>?
t:_:;
:^:_2 ^
^ :;>
> >^_
: :c^
b_^^c
^;>
_ :c?:
G2c^
2^b
^ ^ :c^ 2
b^?:;:>;
> ^cC
^_^_^
::
^?^ :
b
^_^c:: >^;
:^?;
^>_b;^;
:;^ V
zC:>;
_>^? :^;
TUyTXTx,
2 :;V?^ ^
; :?^>
^c: :
> ?^
?b
>:_: ?: ^;:^
: :c
^?2c:
>c :b;
^:;>^
]-9V:
: V>^
: c^:cB
>_:
HPTP(H,
?^_^c:
^cB:
^ :_>
?^ ^
6: ?^>_
,ptpy-
_>_ ::?
:? :_>>
$,%-x1Q(t
xP1PU
c^b;?
>:_
:c:_^ :^;
:? b c
_ :c::: :
:> ^ ;
: :;
:?^
Tt0tP
^c: : ^c
>3bc
?::_b
HPP(H
: :b_
:c^b
,,,$tL-
pH,L,
: :c^ ;b :
:? b
$]-]x0Q
:_>^?
:c: ^c:c: ^ >C
_^?> ^ :?
b B
t,0PLP
t-)^-$
:b?
^?^
>^ b
^cf b
?^ :
PuL,-,L$,)
x,p,U
,tP$P$
b b_:b
PLPH\l
xTU,1
tT1MT
: : bc
:c^ : >
$P(tp
0P,L,
$-L,MPpt1xQ,$,
c>cb
--,LPx
P(,xyP
,$,TPx,9--L
-$TyTP
2?^_^ ^ ?
bfc^
-*V^^
Pt(9Q
? ^>?
Px12-P
2^-LPP
,LQp,M
P1Q0-
-b^^ :
:c^ c >f bgb :
1,L0$
,Tt1t
^ bg: b
:c^ >
:_
b : b
1u,P,(
)Q$xt
bB?^
b^ ^?
b^??b
:?b^ >
($-,ptp
,xl0Q1
bc ?
: >
^ b
t(ttL
^; :?
> b
^ ^;:;
b_
: ^^;
U1P-,P(PPt
(PtLQ
t1Q)PLt
;b_b_
^? :
^ >?
P1-,$,,
;>:
>
^ ^c: b
?^ ^ ^
PHxtT
,t(1l
$,$,P
bc >
H$,pPPHHPpx
5-t,pH
Tt]-U
: > b
:: f >_b
bg:
?^_ >c^c^
tx,U,
,tTt0t
b :
> ^
;b2c^
b: : :
x0xPxP
VP),-,
: b
>
b b
:^ ^V?^
0y : :
? : >g:
,$--yQ
cf b?:
c >
xPpPp,P
b ?
: ;b_
:c ^ ^
: b
:>
; b;b
g:c^ ^ :
:_:b ^^ b C
-P(,pt,Lt
b >
?: :
:cb
c >
>_> :b
,PL,M
?: ?;
?^ _b;
^c: ^
bb >
b ?
> b c b
b b^>3
b?^ b
)Y-xP
: 2 ^c:
1Py0QxH0
t,(t0
b
: : ?:
,U,HP
^ ?
$PMxP
>
> ^c b^ ^c
> >;
c ^
?:?b
,(PTuT
cB
b
b >_b
tL$(t
1mT,y
?:c:c:
$PP(P
$,t(H
^ ^ b >?
> b
?^ : >
p336-1
ftsTitleOverride
Artificial Intelligence (page 1)
ftsTitle
Speech-recognition systems: an engineer tests a talk-writer computer, which allows the machine to interpret and act upon human voice patterns. The interpretation of voice patterns is a criterion for the development of fifth-generation computer systems, in which extreme user-friendliness - the ability to communicate in natural language - would be a major feature. Fifth-generation computers will be radically different from existing machines and will be based on expert systems, very high-level programming languages, decentralized processing and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) microchips.
Artificial Intelligence (1 of 5)
Computer scientists have long dreamt of building machines that can think. So far they have failed, but in the process they have taught us much about the way that humans think. The problem for the field of artificial intelligence (AI) has been in defining intelligence and demonstrating that machines are capable of it.
The British mathematician Alan Turing (1912-54) designed an experiment to test whether a machine shows intelligence. In Turing's experiment a human conducts a dialogue - by means of a computer terminal - with both a machine and another human, hidden behind a screen. Both respondents must answer every question put to them. Turing argued that if the questioner could not decide which of the two respondents was the machine, then the machine would have demonstrated intelligence.
AI researchers have adopted two very different approaches to building intelligent machines. Some have tried to build machines that use the same principles as biological intelligence, while others have chosen examples of intelligent behavior (such as chess playing or language) and tried to build machines that copy it.
Since its origins in the mid-1950s, AI research has attacked a wide range of problems. These include problem solving, natural language and vision.
Problem solving
The first attempts to tackle problem solving (often used as a measure of intelligence) produced the Logic Theorem program in the 1950s. As its name suggests, it was capable of proving theorems. Later came a more advanced program called the General Problem Solver, which was able to tackle more complex mathematical problems.
Since then computer scientists have made great strides in improving the problem- solving abilities of computers, but these are still confined to those problems that lie within the realms of logic.
Language
A major goal of AI research is to enable humans to interact with computers using natural language - language that is written and spoken by humans, as distinct from computer-program languages.
To understand and interpret such language, much more knowledge is needed than was once thought. Computers have to be able to work out the context in which a word is uttered in order to interpret what is being said. To this end AI researchers have made use of the ideas of the linguist Noam Chomsky, who suggested that language obeys a set of rules that can be expressed in mathematical terms.
Running parallel with this work on natural language, research has been undertaken into speech recognition. Speech-recognition systems use information about the structure and components of speech and are typically trained' in on one person's voice. The challenge is to develop a machine that can recognize what any one of a variety of speakers is saying - even if their voice is affected by, for instance, a cold - and distinguish speech from background noise.
Storing knowledge
Computers are able to store a vast amount of information, but this cannot be stored in an orderless mass - the computer has to be able to get at the relevant bits of information to solve a given problem.
To decide how computers should store information most efficiently for the purposes of AI, scientists have explored how humans store and access the knowledge in their brains. As a result much has been discovered about how humans learn.
Expert systems
The most tangible and practical result of AI research has been expert systems. These are designed to help humans make decisions, typically in solving problems where it would otherwise be necessary to call in an expert in a particular area.
Many early expert systems tackled medical diagnosis, but industry and commerce have now begun to take them seriously. Finance companies use them to advise on whether a customer should be given a loan, or what type of insurance would best suit their needs. Expert systems have also been used in mineral prospecting and chemical analysis, and to build computers. They are particularly valuable where decisions have to be made in a hostile environment, such as nuclear power plants.
An expert system has three components:
(1) a database or knowledge base, in which the knowledge and experience of an expert are summarized in the form of rules;
(2) an inference engine, which is a program that searches the knowledge base for the best possible answer to a question;
(3) a user interface, which allows the user to talk' to the system.
The software needed to build an expert system - a so-called shell - is already widely available. Although a shell lacks only the knowledge base, building the knowledge base proves in practice to be difficult and time-consuming. Experts often find it difficult to explain to a computer engineer exactly how they reach their decisions, and translating the mechanics of these decisions - which may rely heavily on experience and intuition - into the exact mathematical logic required by a computer is a complex task. Building the knowledge base has spawned the new field of knowledge engineering - the process of getting the knowledge out of the human expert and translating it into a database of rules.
Expert systems are of no use where intuition or common sense is necessary - they can only be used where the decision-making process follows a simple, well-defined logic path. But such systems are very valuable where experts are scarce, or as a means of preserving knowledge and transferring it to others as individuals retire or change jobs.
* THE BRAIN
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* COMPUTERS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
HH,lPl$P
lPplt,
tltltll
tlPt$
Pltlltl
t(HH,
Pl,H,
H,l$HP
H,HH,l,
t$l,lHH
llPLH
p,ltl,l
,H,Ht(
PpHPP
tHPltlPl
t(lHHt
PltlPH
$PH,HPLlP
tHPHPHt$
lHHPP
PltHPL,
$P$l,
Ht$t$tH
,lPHl
tHPHHPHt
HPl$P
$Pl,$H
PHPHP
ltLP$$
PlltL,$
tP$PPl
tLtt$P
llPLll,
,L$$,pl
lltlt
$llPl
tltltll
ltlPt(
ltltl
P$H,H
pllPl
,lPLl
,lHll,
tHlt$
tHP$P,HP(
HtHPplt
t$,L,H
PLHPll
$ltll
tpPpH,
(HtLHt
Pp,P$
lHll,
$Pllt
PltltLl
L,,L,
tlPlt
ltlP$
lPtll
tLttLP
,l,tpt
tLlPLPH
l,tt(
H,$,$$
$t(t,
P,L,P(,
tLtp,l,l,H
P(,P(
Pp,tLt,p$,
$$,L$
p,,L,
(,P(PP(P,
HtHU$
PL$t,p,t(,
P(,,(
$P,$P$
tPltPlt
PLPPt
(t,pPpt
,(P,L,PP(P
,pPLH
,(P,P,p,P
,P(,L,L
,p,Ll
t(P,LP
L,P(,
P(,,L
t$tH,
H,ptPtp
,P(PL
p,,(PPL,
$H,L,H
P$,H,
LtpPt(Pt,t
,,LPLP
LPPp,LPP(
P(P(,,L,P
pPtpPp,P(
,LTP(,P(PP
,$t$$
p,t,tLP,L,
P(,P(,,L,,
L,P(P,(,P
$HtHl,
tPtLt(tPp
,(P(,
,PL,P
PP(P,L
$,$H,
PptLt
LP(,t
P,(,,
,L,P(,,LP
P$H$l
HH,lHP
,t(tLPL$
,,(,P
L,L,P,L
,PLP,L
H,$,$,
,P(t,p0
P,L,p
PPL,tL
(tPLt,t
,(,P(P,(,P
PHHl,
Lt,pPPL$
,P(,L
$,$$,$
(P,L,,L,P(
,tLt(t(P
,L,$,
,(P,(t,L,,
L,,(t(t
,HP(H$
,t(PL
t(P(P
,L,,p,,LPP
LP,,L
,l$l$
Ltt(P,(t,
,P(P,L
PP(PLP(,
PtpPL
,HH,l,l,
pt,pTP(
(,Pt,(Pt(
P,(,P(,PT,
tPptTt
H$H$P
P(,(P,(P,
p,P(t,L,t(
ttLtPp
PPL,L
$,L,$
(P(,P,
L,P(P,p
t,L,t(tt
tLttp,(
H$H,$H,
HHl,lPP
PpP$,
L,(,P
,P(PP
,p,t(t,L
tLPT,t
H$HP$
lHl$lt
,L,,P
$,L,P
tP(t,LPPL
TtxPxP
PpPt(P
$H,HH
,,Lt,LP,LP
PLP,pPP
x,tL,
lP$H,
Hl,lH
$P(t(P,
P,(P,p,tLt
tLP,L
l,l,H
,t(,t
p,,L,P
t(t,p
$H$H,$
(,L,,LPPLP
PLPptPtpPP
Ptp,t(
lHtLt
$,LPp
p,LPLPP(
,P,PL,t(,
t(t,P(t(PP
(tLt,
PPHl,l
$,$,L$tL
,t,L,
,P(,L,t
(PPLPPpTt,
,x,tLt
H$,l$
t(tTt
,tLPLPLt,
L,L,t
t,L,PL
(tt,L,P(t(
PHPH,$t
tLP,L,H
,(t,p,t(t,
p,tPLPP
PpTP,p,tP
H$PPH
tHHPH,
H$t$,
xtp,PL
P,p,,
PLP,LP
,Lt,p
PLttPp,x,p
HH,H$
LtPp,t(P
P(P$,
p,t(,P
LP,p,tPpPt
PxPLTPp,p
PH,H$HP
PHP$P
tL$H,
,P(t,(P,(
,(P(,P
PL,PLPPLPp
,p,tLtP
tpPPLP,p,P
,H,HH,HH$
$l$,$
PpPt(tPpPP
,P(tL,,p
,PLPtHtPpH
pPPLP,LP
H,HH,$
,L,tLP,L
(,L,,L,tLP
PLPP(tpt(P
,PLPPLPLH
,p,p,P(P,
(,P,,Lt,L,
,ptPpttP
tLP,(t,
,l$HP$t
,t(,,L
LtPLP,
pPLt(tPL
0PLxt,($
H$HPL
L,P(P,
,,pP,L,tp,
p,t(,T$
tpPx,
tLP(,t
L,Pp,tLPPL
,,p,PL$
p$,H,
H,$,H$
Pp,t(P
,t(P(
,L,,p
L,t(tPL
PL,t(
t$,HH,
$,P$$
xtp0t
(tPP(P
,L,,(P,
p,t(t,pPPH
ttLtP
$P$HP
PtLP,
(P,p,PLt,p
PPLtPpPLt
P$H,$
(t(t(x,
p,PLP(
(P,(PPLP(
t,t(t,pPlt
LH$$t
TPLPP(,t(
$P(P,(P,L
,P(,t,p,pP
Pt(t,L
,PLPtLx,p,
tpPp,P
PPLPt
P(,t(,t(tP
LPtPpttL
tPL,P(,
,P(,t(t,pt
,pHPpPP
$,L,PP(,t
(t,(PL
,,L,,
L,LPPLP(
t,t,ptPL
P(P(P,
,,L,,L,tPL
TPLPPL
$,,L,
p,LPLP
t(PPLPP
ltltl
P,L,,p
p,P(tPpPPL
L,P,0P
(,,L,(,p,P
p,tLtHP
PpPL,
(P,,t0
$,L$,
P,L,PLPPp,
t(ttLtt
PLt,L
,LPTTP
,(,L,tL,P
Lt,LPtLPp,
t$,$,
LP(t(P(P
p,x,P(,PT
(P,(P,(tPp
,$,(H,
,x,xP
tL,T,(P(0t
PP,LP
P(,tLtt
P$,$P$P
,P(,t,xT
P,p0t0P(
tLx0P
ltLll
P(P,L
,tLtt(t(Pt
P$,H,$,H
t(P(P$
,p0x0tx0x,
L,P,t(tx
0,T,pTT,
(P(,PL
$tLtPLt,tL
P$P$,LH
LPp,,L,P(
$,L,P
0PTPTT,Tx0
,(P,(
tx0t0PTPTT
$,PLP,LtLt
,$P(H,L$
(t,P,L,t(t
(,P(,x
xTP0t,xTx
,LP,(P,(tx
TT,T,,xx,L
Ppltlt
p,,ptt
ltLttL
,L$P(H,HP
t,LPLPP(PT
,p,,L
L,p,,T,x,
T,p0x,txx,
P,(PP
,T,x0
$PLtLtpPPL
$,(H,$t
t(t(t,pPP(
t,pt,t(P,
P,PLT,P
(,t(tTPTTP
,(P,p,
,PTx0
$$,H$
PltLtl,
LtH,P
P(PtltlPpt
ltLtL
P$t$L
Pt(t,p,PLP
,p,(t(t,p,
(P,(x,L0t
0t(xPxPp
$P(P(P
(PPpTxx,x
,(HPLtPp
PtpPtt
,H($$,
t(t,p,t(P,
p,P,LPPLP,
,P0P,x
0,L,xTt
(,P,(P,pPx
x,xTT
p$,P$P
LPLt,t(t,p
p,p,,p,t(
t,p0t(P,$$
$,$(,t(PTP
TP,PLT
P(,,L,pt
Tx0T,xx
,p,tLtl
H,L$,HPH
,t,(tLPPL,
,L,,L,
t(PPLPt(P,
P(,(P,L,pT
LPPL,PLPt
tH,HP$
,L$,LPt
,H$,HPPH,,
p,L,t,,LP,
P,L,(P,,
LPL,t,LPp,
(,Tt0t,tpP
,L,t(ttL
Ht$HH
$P(tp
ltLt(l
,p,t(tL,P
$,PLPLPP,L
,(t,t(
LP,P(
P(,LP
t(,pP
,PLtL
PHH,p,H,P
(P,p,pP
,p,,P(
PL,LPLPPx(
LTPT,
,pPt(
L,P,p,t
P$$PH
P(PLP,
P(P(t
P,t,p,tPLP
P(P,LPP(t
$(PPp$
P,L$PL
LttLT,
p,t0p,PPLx
(,p0PPLP
$$,$l,lP
l,$,$
PLx,t(,
H,(P(tPL
p0tPLPxPLP
L,P1t(,
$H,$HH
p,P$Pp
pPttH,p,
,pt(P
$,P,(t(PL,
Pp0t0tTPPL
Tt,L,
$H$$,$,
$x,LH
LtptL
,tTt,(
P$P(t,L,t
0t,pPTPtLT
t,pTt
tLt,(P
P,LPL,t,
LP(xPLPPTt
PTt(P,
,$$,H
LtPLt(HPtp
,xt(P,
t(PLP(t,
PTTPLTtPxT
P(t(P
H,,HH,
$H,HH$HlH
pPPTP$
P(t,pTPPT
,pTPTPtTtT
PpPpPt(tL
(P,LPTx,,
xPTxT
HHPH$
,lHlt
H$H,HH
ptl,pH,
t(t(,
$,L,p,xT
x,tTxPxxPx
xTP,P
,H,HlPll
H,$H$,$,$
tPpPt,px,t
Tt0P$
,Pp,px,xTT
PxtTxxTxTt
H,H$H,
PpPPp$tLtL
t,t(P
,PLTPTPPTx
$,HtH
pttpP
$,t0x0tTPx
TxTxT
PPpPxt
,pTxxTxT
HllH,
tLPtPL
$TxPTxTx
,H$H,H$F
(HTtpxP
tTxTxxTx
H,H$t$
(ttPpP
txTxxT
PH,H,$$PH,
t$tLx
$,HPH,H$,HG
LttLPTtptp
ttLtpPxPx,
$$,$$,
tLtHPLtTPt
P$H$+
PHtHx
PLPtPpx,
$$,$$
PPTxt(x
tpPPTtPLPL
pPHxtPpt,x
,H$,V
$tLt0tLP
tLPTt0
llHH$,
t,xPp0tLP
llH,H$H,
Pt(txtpTP,
ll$H,
H$,HW
LPtPp,PPL
PHPpxPtLT,
ll$PH
t$xtLx0PLP
$HH$HH
,tTt(P,
PPTtpx,t,
llHl,H$P
tllHl
PLtPx,p,L,
l$HHP$
,,tpPx,x
lt$H,
TPxPT,P
lPlH,l
,LxPt0t,(
,pxt,L
ltlPH
,pxPx,(P,
]`\bj
Pltll
tTtLTP
PpxtTPL
T\1\kbkF
PLtPT,$
tTtLTPP
Ptx,x,(
xx,xPLP
tTtLT,
PtTPt(
xxtT0t
PtTP(P
x0t,T,
tLxt,L
\bj?jb
TP00,
t,x,L
Tt0L,
Pt00$
HP$,LP
,lPHTP
xTt,L
TxtxP
tTtptx
PpxPpt
Ttt,(
QH-Ir
z-{VVR
2VRNRHlP
Mu-rH
v2v2VQRNQz
ll$,$
lltl$
m$lHm
x,t(tP
z)vqV-*
lt(t(
_VQ-q
$$lP$tl,
-qSu(l
tHll,
HlHlHPu
lt,x,
H,HPl
lP$PH
ltllt
lPH$$
(x,p,x,p,P
lltlH
,PLPLP
,p,P,p,P(x
,PLP,pT
$,tll
lltll
,pPPT,p,
x,pPT
PPL,p,t
(tLt,
H$$,$
P,LPPLP
PLPPL,
,p,Pp,t
(t,t,Ll
$lPll
,pPLT
PPL,x,t,
tLPPt(tPL
ll,P$
,PTt,t(t
P,p0$
$TPLPL
,t(tT,H
l,llH
$H$l$H,$
tPL,,p
0t(Pp,x
PLt,pPtLt,
QM$HHP
PLPtp,
t(P,PLt
PP,LP
PLPPp,,
,lHll
,$tH,H,$
HHll$PH
$tHH$
L,t0PL
,x,p0PPp,p
Ppt(tLPpPP
p,t(tx
,t(tLP
t(t,pPL,t,
P(t,t(t,,
ll$P$
ltl,lt
tltlltl
puIQQ
,LPTPP
x,pPLt,pT
H$H,$$
,pPPLP,t
,P(tPLP
lltlPl,H
,$ttl
t(t,pPP
Pt(t0
$,$$H
H,H$H
,t(t,LP
PLP,x
$P$,l,lH
$$HHll
tlH,H
H,HtH,($P
0PLPTP0t(
LPPLPpPP
P,H,H
H,$Hlltltl
HtHPl
L,t(t,(,t(
t,p,tLPHpP
PLPP,L,
P,LPL,
l$$H$
t,p,P
tll,l
$,$$,t
$$TtP(P
P,LHHtl
H,P$H
$l$lP
lH,pPT,
,H$$llt
tHltl
QuMu%PH
,PLPP
ll,HllP
$H$l,
PL,PLT$
lHP$l
($,$P
$,H,l
$$H,lP
$0t(t,
,tPL,
lH,$tl
,H,ltL
$PLPx
$HH$l$l
llH,$H
$-Q$HH,l,
,(t,p
$PHl$
LP,L,
,P(tPp
T,P,p
t(x,pt
$TP0t
H$H$l
MmQIPmuMm
t,p,,
,H$Pl,
lPHllt,
$$,$$P
Pll,HP
$P,H$
$P$H$
(P0PLl
HH$$H
ltltlt
HlPH$H
Pl,(t
H,H$P
H,lltl
l$,$$H
tltll
ltll$P
llH,H
l,$$P
lPH,lP
lltll
lltllP
tlt$u
lltll
$$PHI
lltll
uuMIPIu
$HH$H
$H$Pll
PHHll
H-$$l
lHP$H,
$$,lltl
H,HPt
Hl,HlH
lltlH
,HHPpl
HlHHPHH,H$
l$$H$
ml,HP
$$,llt
$l$Hll
H$,$P
HH,H,
PH$H,
H,H$P
PllHl
l$,Htl
$-H-lI
tHHlPlP
lltHlP
tltH$
ll$,$
l$$,Hlt
,$,H$
H,tLll
lltll,
HHtHPH
t$t$ll
PmlumPHQl
l$$Q$
$$HH$
$,p%P
$$lHH,
$H,lH$
H$Hll
lltll
HHtmPm,
$lH$t
tH$lH
HtllP
$,llH
,,lHl,l
HHllP
tH$P$H
,ltll
$H$ll
LllHl
$$H,l
$Hll$,
tH,HH
$$,HH
$H$lHl
ll$H$
P$HP$
$,$lHQ
p336-2
ftsTitleOverride
Artificial Intelligence (page 2)
ftsTitle
Computer-aided design has become a feature of not only car design but also the composition of aircraft, shoes and buildings. The design of complicated items requires many related computations. Computers and super computers are able to perform such calculations at very high speeds. Computer graphics are then used to show the results.
Artificial Intelligence (2 of 5)
Neural computing
As neurophysiologists have begun to unravel the structure of the brain, computer scientists have seized upon their findings as a potential basis for a computer architecture.
The brain is essentially a complex network of interlinking neurones (nerve cells) and it is this interlinking that is the key to solving problems quickly. The idea of building a neural network has been around since the 1940s, but only since the early 1980s has interest been rekindled. In this time computer technology has advanced rapidly, making the prospect of building neural computers more realistic.
Neural networks offer big advantages over conventional (von Neumann) computers in searching large databases for close matches, or storing and accessing data. They consist of a large number of processors (nodes) - the points at which the information is processed - linked by communication channels. Neural computers learn by example; they are not programmed like conventional computers, which means that they are not simply given a series of instructions to carry out. They use the concept of feedback - where part of the output of a node is returned as input for another process, for self-correction - and hence they can interact with their environment.
They also differ from conventional computers in that changing the interconnections between nodes alters the behavior of the network, making it suitable for a particular kind of problem solving.
Neural networks are now finding their way into the commercial world; early applications are in financial advice, recognizing intruders, and detecting explosives.
Robotic arms working on the assembly line of a car production plant. Because of their suitability for carrying out repetitive tasks with speed and accuracy, robots are widely used to assemble cars.
Artificial Intelligence (3 of 5)
Thinking machines?
The road to the thinking machine is proving longer and more difficult than the AI pioneers of the 1940s and 1950s believed. There is still much debate in the AI community about whether computers will ever be able to think, or to display the traits normally considered essential for intelligence.
But the pursuit of the thinking machine has brought us robots, machine translation, computer systems capable of obeying verbal instructions and recognizing faces, and a chess-playing program capable of beating some of the world's top players. While the debate continues, research into AI is bringing a better understanding of brain function and our own intelligence, and an insight into such things as speech disorders and learning problems.
Cars on a assembly line are put together with the help of robotic arms.
Artificial Intelligence (4 of 5)
ROBOTICS
A major branch of AI is robotics. Although still in its infancy, robotics has already produced practical applications. They are used on car production assembly lines to carry out repetitive tasks, and can also perform many tasks that would be too dangerous for human workers. Mobile robots are being used, for instance, in the investigation and controlled destruction of terrorist bombs. Similarly, robotic manipulators are widely used in highly radioactive environments.
A key element of the microelectronics of robots is the negative feedback control system. In negative feedback, information about the effect of the control is fed back to the controlling part of the system so as to adjust it appropriately. The feedback is called negative because the information passing back has the effect of opposing the direction or force of the controlling influence. In driving a car, if the wheel is turned too far clockwise the information fed back is that the vehicle is veering too far to the right. If negative feedback is applied, the wheel will be turned anti-clockwise and the deviation corrected. A simple mechanical device that uses a negative feedback control system is called a servomechanism. The idea has been extended in power, scope and precision by the use of microelectronics.
The essential features of an industrial robot are that it should have a means of acquiring information (a sensor), a means of analyzing and comparing that information with the task required of it (a computer), and a means of effecting an action (manipulator). Sensors are varied, but all of them simulate the functions of the human senses. Miniature television cameras provide visual data; microphones provide sound information; touch sensors indicate contact and can distinguish different surfaces; movement and position sensors indicate acceleration and a change of location; chemical smell' receptors respond to volatile agents in the atmosphere; even taste sensation can be simulated.
Robot manipulators are modeled on the human arm. To be able to work in three dimensions a robotic arm must be capable of moving in a minimum of three directions, or, as engineers express it, it must have three degrees of freedom. The most flexible type of arm has this amount of rotational freedom and the computer has to perform complex mathematics to calculate movements and avoid collisions. However, even this type of arm is incapable of such a function as turning a screwdriver. For this reason a wrist' is commonly fitted to the end of the arm, which may have three degrees of freedom itself. Almost any kind of tool can then be fitted to the part beyond the wrist.
Most robots are fixed in position so the mechanical manipulator arm can be used with precision. Artificial intelligence research, however, is now being directed towards allowing robots to acquire so much information about their environment that they will be able to move about safely and thus widen their scope of action.
* THE BRAIN
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* COMPUTERS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
WTN.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"WTN"
defaultPage
fName
).tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Cars on an assembly lineTime~*
**++*
p336-5
Artificial Intelligence (5 of 5)
Storing Information
There are many ways of storing information. Some commonly used approaches include:
Trees: here the relationship between chunks of knowledge is expressed as rules (or branches).
Frames: similar to a series of boxes, where related facts can be stored or pigeon-holed.
Semantic nets: these show the relationships between different chunks of knowledge.
Shown here are different was of organizing the knowledge that birds and mammals are animals, sparrows and penguins are birds, sparrows can fly but penguins cannot, whales and cat are mammals, whales can swim.
* THE BRAIN
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* COMPUTERS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Artificial Intelligence (page 5)
ftsTitle
;:;:_:
22 ;2
:_;;:
:_;;:
;:;;_:
:;;_:
:_;;:
2:2C:
;:3::3
2;:2;:2;:2
;:;2::;:2;
::2;;:;2::
;:;:2;:2;:
2;:2;::3::
;:2;:2;:2;
;;:;;
;;:;;:
;;::;;::;;
::;;:;::;;
:;:;:;;::;
;:;::;;:;:
;:;;::;;::
;;:;::;;:;
:;:;;::;;:
;::;;:;:;:
;;::;;::;;
:;::;;::;;
::;;::;;:;
^:;;:;:;:;
;::;;:;::;
;:;:;:;;::
;;::;;:;::
;;::;;::;;
::;;:;::;;
:;:;:;;::;
;:;::;;:;:
;:;;::;;::
;;:;::;;::
2122:
;:;^;:;^;:
;^;:;^;:;^
;:;^;:;^;:
;^;:;^;:;^
;:;^;:;^;:
;^;:;^;:;^
;:;^;:;^;:
;^;:;^;:;^
;:;^;:;^;:
;^;:;^;:;^
;:;^;:;^;:
;^;:;^;:;^
;:;^;:;^;
p338-1
Ground-bearing concrete slab floor. The concrete slab may be reinforced with steel bars, depending on ground conditions and loading requirements.
` I Building Construction (1 of 4)
The essential task of building construction is to satisfy that most basic of human needs - a roof over one's head. Buildings have many purposes and construction is not confined to providing dwellings: it embraces the provision of shelter for most human activities.
The purpose of a roof is to cover a floor, and floor area is the prime feature of a building's specification. In modern times, building design has aimed to minimize the cost per square meter of floor, while observing local or national building and planning regulations. Building regulations specify approved techniques and materials, chiefly with the aim of enhancing safety, but because they generally favor well-tried methods, they tend to delay innovation. Planning regulations are concerned rather with the appearance of a building and its suitability to a particular location. In cities, where land is expensive, high-rise buildings may be cheaper per square meter, despite the greater construction costs.
Parts of a building
The part of a building above ground level is called the superstructure; the part falling below ground level is referred to as the substructure. The stability of a building depends on its load-bearing components. There are three kinds of load: 1. Dead - resulting from the weight of the building itself; 2. Live - the result of furnishing, equipment and bodies; 3. Lateral - the result of sideways pressure, typically due to wind.
In a typical house, the load is borne principally by load-bearing walls. Internal dividing walls or partitions may or may not carry loads. Larger buildings may also use columns, arches and domes to support loads. The load-bearing substructure is known as the foundations, or footings, and for a house this is usually concrete supports for the load-bearing walls. Where the ground is soft, raft foundations may be used, which distribute the load evenly over the area occupied by the building. For larger buildings, piles may be driven through the ground to connect the substructure with ground of sufficient strength to support the building.
An alternative to load-bearing walls is skeleton construction, in which a structural frame carries the load, and the walls (curtain walls) are used simply to enclose space. In most conditions, load-bearing walls are not suitable for structures of more than four floors.
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* VISUAL ARTS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Building Construction (page 1)
ftsTitle
$xpxpx
pxppxxpxpx
pxppxpxpp(
xpxpxpxpxp
pTpxpx
(p((pp(xpx
(pxpx(xp(x
pTpxp(pxpp
Lxppx(ppx(
ppxpxLp$
xxpxpxxp
((p(x
pxpTxpxpxL
x(xpx(xpTx
(xppxpxLxp
xpxLp
pxLxpxLxpx
pxxpxp
xLpxpxppxp
pxpxppxpxT
Lpxpxpp0
xppxp0ppT(
xpxLxpx
ppxpxp0ppx
((xLpxppTp
x(xppTpxxp
xpp(p0H0
xp(xpxxpxp
xpxppTpxp
L0ppxLpx(p
Tp(xpp0
0p0p0pxxpx
xpxp0px
0ppxppxL(
xpxpxLxpxp
xLx(pp0pp(
pxpxxTp(($
Tppxxp
pxLxppxpxL
xx(xxp(8
xxLxpxpTpx
TpxppxL(xp
0ppxxpL
xxpxp
TpxppxpTpx
(xpp(
pxxpxpxxpx
xppxLxpp0p
(xxpp
xxppTp
xpxpxpxpLp
pLpxpx$
x((p(x(xpp
xppxpxppLp
xppxpxpx
pxLpxLpxpx
(($xxL0px
xxpxp
pxxpxLxp(
p((pp
$(($(
ppxpx
:(px0p
xxpxp0
(ppTp($(00
pp((p
9Hpxp(
0pp0ppT
pLxpTxpxxT
pxppx
pxpxp(
xpxxpTpxpx
-pxpTpxp
xxLpxpxp(x
pxpTpxpxpp
pxpTpxxpp(
xpxxpTp(pT
pxpxxLxp(
(ppxpL
pxpxp(xLxp
xpTpxpxpxp
pTpxpp(
9ppxpx(
xpxpxLxx(p
xxp((
0ppxpxpx
xpTpxpx(px
0(T((
1p(pxpp
xxpxpxx
xp(p1
xpTpxxL(
pxpx(p
L((0((T
0((0((
-1-1:-
0(L((0((
0(T((0L(0(
0((p0((x
0(L((0((x(
((0((L(0
0(T((0(p(
U11::
((0L0(
y001001001
01010101
0010100
0100101010
0100100100
-101001010
1001010101
0101001010
0100100100
1001010010
10100
(xpL(ppxpp
(pxLxppLp0
p(xpxpxL(x
ppTp(xpxpL
Lp(ppxpx(x
Lxpx(p0p(x
ppx(pLpx(x
pxLxppLp
Lp(xppT(x(
ppxpT
p(ppxpxp(x
0px(x
xpxpxLp(pp
0xpp((xpxp
(ppxpp((pp
xpxxL
xpxpxpTppx
xpxpxxpxxp
xxpLpxpx(x
(xpx(pp(xp
xppxL
xxppT
0pxpTppxpL
xxpTxpxpxL
(pxpxppxxp
xpxLpx
((xppx(
LxpxxpLxp(
xpTpxpxpLp
xp0pxpxpp0
p0(ppxxp(x
ppxpTpxLxp
pxLxpxpx
xpx0p
px(xp0ppx0
xpLxpxLpxx
x(pxppxxpp
TpxxpxpTpx
pxxp(0p(xx
ppxp0pxpp(
xppxp(xpLx
pxppT(xpTx
pp0xpxp(xp
pxpLp0
LxpxppLxpx
pxLppx(p(p
xppLpxppLp
xpLpx
0ppTxpxpTp
0p(xx
xxTpxpx
pxpLxxpxpx
xpTpxpLpxL
(xxppxLpxp
p0xpxL(p0p
xx(px(
x(ppxLxpx(
xLxpxp0pxp
pxp0x(xpxp
xp(pxL
xpxpTppxpT
xpxp0p(xpx
px(pxppxLp
xx(xpxp0xp
xpTpxxLppx
ppxpp(xppx
Lpxpp(
xp0pxppxpp
T(p0pxp0pL
x(xpxxpxpp
Lxpx(xp(x
x(pp0
x(xpT
LxpLppxpxL
xpp0px
pxL(xpxL
pxp(xpTx
p(ppxpxp(x
0pxppx(pTp
pxLpp0xpxp
xpxpxpLpp(
xxppTpxp(x
ppxpx$
xxpxpTppxx
pxpTxpxpx(
pTppxppTpx
T(xpxpxpLp
px(px0pxpx
(xp0pxp(xp
Tppxpxpx(x
xppTp0
pxpxppxpx$
x0ppx(xpp
Tpp0pxpTx(
x(xpx(xxpx
Tppx(p0xpx
(pxpxpLppx
p(pxppL0px
pTxpx(xpLx
xpxpLxpTpx
p0pxpx
xpx(xpxLx(
xxp(xxpx(p
p0xpxLpxp0
p(xLpxpTpp
xpp(pxppxp
0px(xpxpLx
pxpxLxp
xLpxppx
ppTpxpxpxx
(pxpxppLx
xLp(pp(pxp
(xpp0pxpxp
L(pxppLxpx
pxppxxpTpx
pL(xpx
pxLxxpxxLx
0pxppx(xpx
pLxp(xpx(p
xp0pxpLppx
xpLpxppxp(
xppx(xppxp
p0ppxpx(px
pTppxpxp(p
Tp(xpxp
xpxpT(px(
pTxpxLx
xL(ppxxpT
xpLxpxppTp
p(xppLxp(p
xLpxpxpxLx
pLxppxpxpp
xppxpxpp0p
pxppxpTxpx
p(xpxpxppL
xpxLxpxp
p(pxpxp0pp
xppTpxpxL0
pxpx(xLpxp
x(pxL0pTpx
xpxLxpxL
pLpx(xp(p
xppxL
ppxp0pTpxp
xpTpxpxxp0
pxpx(xppxx
pLxppxppxL
xpLxpp(xpp
(x(pxx
xpL0xpxTxp
xxpx0pxpxp
0pp(xpxLxp
xTpxpxppTp
xpTpxLxp0p
xppx(xpxpx
Lpxpxppxpx
pTppxppxpp
(p0xpTppT
pxp0xpp
0pxxLxpxpx
LxpxpxpTx(
xpxpxL
x(xLxx(x(x
pxpxpxx(px
ppLx(ppxp(
xpxL0ppxL(
LxxppLxppT
p(px(xxpT(
xppxxp(xpp
0ppxLxpTpx
x(xpxpxpTp
x(xLp0pxL0
ppxp(xppxp
xpxxLx
xp0px(
ppxpxxpxLx
(xpxp(xpTp
xppxpx(pxp
xxTpx
LxpxpxpxxL
ppxpxxpxpT
pxpx(p(
L(pxpTpx
pxpxp(
(pxppTxpxp
(xpxpTx(px
pp0pxp0pxp
xpx(ppxp(x
(px(pxpxxL
(xppx(p0pp
Tp(ppx(p0x
0(p(x
p0p(xpxpxp
xp(xp0p
pxLxpxpxp0
ppx(pxp0px
TpxpxpLxpT
x(ppxLpxLp
xp(xpTpp(x
p0pxppx(px
0xxL0pxpx(
ppxTpxpxpT
ppxxp(pxpx
pTp0px(xpx
pT(pxpxx(x
xpxpxL0pxp
T(xpxTpxpp
xppTxpxpxp
xpxpxpxp
pxL(pxL
pxppx(xppx
L(xpxppxLp
x(pxpxpp(x
ppx(xppx(x
pLpxppxxpx
Lxppxpx
0pxpxLpxp(
xp(xxpxpxp
pxppxpxpxp
xpxpxppLxL
x(xpp0pxpp
pxppxp
xx(p(xp0p(
pxLxp
0pxpx(ppxp
(x(x(pxLxp
xpL0pxpxTp
pxpp(
xpxpTppxpx
p0ppx(p(
0pxpxpT(
0pxpxxp(xp
p0p0(xp
px((xx$0((
px(xp
0p(xx(xHxx
Lx(pxpxpxp
$Lxpp
xLxpx(xpTx
xppxLpx
(xpxp0pxLx
pxxpxp(ppx
p(x(xpxTpx
pTxpxpxpxp
pTpx(xpxLx
pxpxx(px(x
(x(px
pLxpxLpxpT
xp0xp
xpLpxp0ppT
(xpxpxp
px(pxpxpxL
xpx(pxLxpp
xpL(xppx(x
ppTpxLppxx
pxLppxpxlp
xp0p0pxpp(
pxxpx
(0ppxL
pxpp(
$Txppx
xpxLxppLx
pxp(p
xpxpxppT
xpx0pT
xppTppxppx
Lxpp0pxpL0
p(pTp(xpLp
xp(xxppLp
pxTpp0p
(pxLxp(xpx
(p(pp
x0p(pxpx(x
px(xLx
ppLxppxp0p
xpxpx
xL0ppx(xpx
L(p(xpLxpx
ppxL(xpxpx
x(px(p(ppL
(pxpLxp(xp
xpxTp(
(pxLpx(p
x(xp0px(xp
pxpTppxp
xp(pxpx
xp(xxp(xpp
xpxLxp(p(x
0pxL(xpL
Lpx(pxxp(x
ppxp(x(pTp
(pxppxppxp
xpxppxppxp
(xxpxx
pxTppx
xppx(px
xLxpT
ppxLx(xLp0
p0p(x
(xxp(ppTpx
pTxpx
xpx(xpp0px
xppTxppx(x
ppxppxTpx0
l(x(p0(px(
xp(xLpxL(x
(xpxpTxppx
(pxpxxpxxp
pxpxxpxxT(
0px(x
pxpx(ppxpx
px(ppxxLpx
Lpxppx(x
pxppT0x0
xpxpxp0p
(ppxp
xppTx
xppxppxpxp
pxpp0ppTpx
px(ppLp(xp
pxTppx
x(xLpx(pxp
xppxpxpx(x
pT(p0(x(p0
xp0pxx(xpp
xpLxppT(xp
$TxpTp
pxpxx(ppxp
(pxpp(xppx
pp(xpxx
xxpxpTp0x
ppxpx(xL0p
(xTpxpxpxp
pTpxppx(xp
Lxppx(p
xpxTpp(pxp
0xpxxLp(px
(xppx
xpTp(
xpLxpx
xppT(pxLx
(p0pxpp(x
0p0pxxL(
pxTpxpx
LxpxLx
xpTpxp
pxpxL
pxpxpLxpp0
xp0xpL0
Tpxpx(pxTp
x(pLp(ppxp
xp0pxpxp(x
x(xLxpxpxL
(pp(x(
pxxp(ppTpp
Txpxpp(xpx
x(xp(
p0pxp
xpxpx(x
pxxppT(
0pxpTppxp0
ppxppxppx
Lxxpxpxxp0
pxp0ppxxL(
pxxpxpx
xpxppx
Tpxpx(
(xpxp
(pxpxpx
(pTpxpL0pp
ppxpp
xp(xp
xpTp0xpxx(
xLppxT(xpx
Lxp(xpp
xpTpxpxppx
0pLxp
Lxpx(pp0px
(pxpL(pxLx
pxpLp0pxLp
x(xpxT(xpx
pxppxppxpx
LpxpTpxpx(
(pLxp((pxp
x(xLx(xp(p
(pp(ppx
xp(ppxpp0p
(x(xpxppxp
xL0xp(
0pxpTp
Tp(xpx
xxppT
xppxpx(
0pxxp
x(xpp0px
xLxpp(p0p
xpLxppxpLx
xpxxp(xpxp
pxppxL0x
xpp0p0p(x(
xpx(x(pp(p
0xxpx0
xx(x(pxp0p
xL0ppxp(px
T(xpxxpL0x
pxp(x
xppxxp
p(xppx(pxp
0pxpxp0pxx
p0pxpLppxp
pTpxp(px
xpTpxpx
L(x(p0
Lxppxp(xpp
xxppx(p
xpxpT
ppxpxTpxpx
pxpTx(pxp(
ppTp(pxxpp
L0pxp
(pxpx(
Tp0ppxpLxp
xp(xpL
xpxTpp0p0p
pTpxp0pxpx
pxppx0ppT(
0pxpx
xpxL0px
x0pxpxx
px(0xpx(x0
ppxpp0p0px
(pL0pxpxp0
xp0p0
(x(xxpxpxL
0pxpxxppT0
pp0pxp(px
(xpxL
0pxp0pxpxp
xppxpTpxpx
pxpp(x(xL
xp(pT
(pxpT(ppxp
xpxpxxLppL
(xpxpp0
ppxpT
xpp(xpx(px
(x(xLpx(xp
xpxLp0
xLpxp
xpxpxTxppT
(pp(pxpTp0
ppxxppxppx
(pLxx
(pxpTpxpxp
xppTxpx
Tpxpp(pxpp
0pp0pxpxpx
ppxpxpp0pL
xp(pxTp(x(
pT(ppxp0pp
(x(ppxx
x0pxL0px(x
ppTxpxpxpT
ppxLxpx(px
(xpp(xpxpp
x0ppxp0xpx
px(pxp0x
x(ppTpxxpp
xppxLx(pxp
Tpxpxp(
xpTpxpTpxp
xTpx(xxpTp
pxxppxppxp
xpxpT(xpLx
(xpxppx
xpT(pxppxp
xpxpp
(pxpxx
pxpxpxx
x0ppxpp0pp
x(xppxL(xp
pT(xpp0pxp
pxLp(xppx
xp(xpLxpxx
TpxpT
xp0xLpxLpx
ppL0ppxpTp
pxTppx(xpx
pTpxp0p0pp
xpx(p0pp(p
Tpx(ppxx$
xpx(xx(px0
pL((px(p
px((p(pp(
xLxpp0pxpx
px0ppTpxpx
Lxp(pxpxpT
pxLxxpxTpp
xpxxpxp(p
(xxpxp
pxppxx
xxp(xpxpx(
xpLxpxpLpp
xppxpp(ppx
Lp(xpLxpx(
(xT(xpxpxp
xxLxpx
Lxpp(pT(xp
xppxpxL(xp
xxpxpLxxpx
xpTxp
xppLxpx(px
pxpx(ppxpp
x(pxpx(xpp
xppTpxp(xp
0pxp(pp
0pxppx(ppx
x(pxpTxppx
pTppxpxTpx
pT(xppxpxp
xp(ppx
pTpxpxxLpx
xpxpp(pTpx
ppxppT(ppx
xLxppTpx(p
pxx(pL(x
T(x0px(p(p
xpLxppLxx
x((pp(
Hppxp
0xpxpxL
(pxpxp(ppx
xLxpx(pxL(
pxpx(xpxpp
1(px
xLxxppTp0p
pxLx(px(xp
xpxLxp0px(
xppxp(xppT
p($($
0pxpxx(xpp
0ppT0ppxpp
(x((x
1(ppxppxp
pxpxpxxpxp
xppxTppx
xp0pLxpx0x
0pp(ppx
(pp(x
xpxTpxppT(
xppx(xpxp
(x(xpxxppx
pxLpxx
0(L((q
xxpTpxp
xppxppLx(p
0ppxLpxppx
x(xpp(ppxp
(p(xpp(xpp
xpp(ppL0
xxpxpp
xppxL
pxxLx
xpTpp
Lppxx
L(xppxp(px
ppTxppx0pp
(xLpxxLppx
p0pxpxp
((0L0(0LL
pTpxxT(xpT
xpxppxLppx
ppxpxpTp(x
xpp(pxLp(p
xLxpxpxpTp
(xppT(p(
0pp(xpL(px
p(pp((pTpp
Txpxpx
Lxppxp(xp
xx(xp((pxp
(ppxpx(ppx
(pxpxp0ppx
px(xpxLxpp
xTpxpxLpxp
TpxLp
$pxpx
TpxxpxpTp(
x(xpxxpTp(
pxLxpp0ppx
pxL(pp(ppx
(p0ppL(xpx
xpTpp0(x
xTp($
xxpTpxpT
px(xx(x(xp
pxLppxpxp(
xpxLx(xpxp
(xpx(xppxp
p0pxp(ppxp
xxppxxppxx
T(0((p
Tppxpxxppx
pTxppxppxp
xpTpxp(xpp
xp(xppx(pp
xppLx
xxppxl0px(
xpxpL(
pp0xpxpTpx
pxpTp(xpxp
p(pxp0pp
xLp0pxpp0p
xpT(xLxppT
pxpxpL(ppx
0(L((0
$pxpL
TpxpxpxLpx
pxLppxpx(p
xppx(ppxpx
(pTpp0
(xpxp(xp(p
xp(p(ppxx(
(ppLpp
pxTpxxpxpT
pxpxpTppxp
xpxpLxpx
ppxpxppT
xpxpxpLxpx
Lxp0xpTp0x
pxLpxxLx$
L((0(L(0(0
:(pxpxLp
pxLxpxppxL
xppxL0
Tp(xppxxLx
0pLp(
LxpLp(xpxp
px(pLx
(ppxpxxp
(xxpxpT
pxpxxpxTpp
xpx(xp
xpxL(pxpT(
pxpxLxpp0p
xpx(pxppTp
pxpxL
L((0((L0(x
pxppxxp
xpTpxpxppT
xpxpxLpxpL
ppxL0
x(xpp0
xp(xpL(x(p
xpx(pp0(pp
px)xx1
pxpxTpxpx
x(pxLp0
xp(pxpx(xp
pT(xpxpxxL
x(xpxxp(xp
pxppxpxpxT
xpxLxpxpxp
xxpT(xxpxp
(pxp0p0
L(xpxx0ppx
xppL(
xLLx(
(xxLxppxpx
L(xpxxpTpx
px(pxx
(xLpxppxpp
xLp0pp0pp(
xpTxppxxp
((L((L(0(
0(0(y
pLpxppxpTp
xppxLxppTp
0pxp0
Lxp(xpL0
(xpp(px
xpxTppxL$
$($($
pxxLx
0pxpxpL0px
px(xpx
x(pxpxpT(x
ppx(pTpxpx
pxpTppx(px
pxpLxL
((0((0
0L0(0(q
HxppTppxp
pxLpxppx0p
xpxLppxL(x
(p(pp0pp(
xpp((xLxp(
p(xppx(pT
x(pxxL(xpx
x0pxp0
pp(xppxL0p
xxppT(x
x(xpxLppxp
pxpxTpxxpx
x(xpx
xpL(pxpx(x
pxpx(pp0
xpTTLxpLxp
pxp(xp($-
xLxpxp0xTp
xpxppxp(xL
xppxpxpx(x
ppxpLpxppx
L0pxpp0pxp
0((L((0((p
xTpxpxpxpx
(xTppxLp0p
xp(px(p(px
xpLpx((pxp
(xHxxpx(pp
-1010y
(lpxp
xp(pp(pp
xpxLp1
pxLxxpxp
xTxpp0pxpx
xLxxL(
xx(xpxpxLx
LxpxpTpxpx
((T((
0(L(0(0(L0
:(pxx
TpxpT
0pxppxL
x(ppLxp(xL
pxp(xxp(pL
(ppLpp$1
ppxxpxp
xpLpx(pxxp
px(ppxLpp
Tpx(xxpxTp
pxppTpxpTx
LLxxpxpTpx
(xxppxp(p(
p(pp0pxT
(xppLpp(xp
0ppxpH
xxpxpxpp
xxpTpxxpT
0xpxpxxpTx
pxpxppxp0
ppxppxpxpp
xp0pxp(px(
xpxpx(
xpx(xxpp0p
xpx(pxpp
pxLxp
Txpxx(xpx(
pxpxpTpp
pxLpxpT(pp
xppT(xpx(x
((L(0(p
xpxpp0
L(pxL(xp(p
(ppxpp(ppx
xpxppxpTxp
xpxLxpxpx(
pTpxpT
ppxppxpxpp
Txpp(x
((0(0LU
pLxp0xLpxp
pp(pxT
xp(p(pp0
(pxp$x
x(xxppxpTp
xpT(xxpxpx
xp0pxpxxp
xLp0p(xp(p
((L0(
xxpTpxx(
Tp0pLxp(px
p0pp((x
xLpxpxp
pxpxpxLp(x
pxpxpp(
xp0pxLpxpx
((0(0(p
ppxpp0p0px
(px(px
pxLxpxL
TpxxppxTpx
pxLxpLxp
xppxpxpp
(0(0L(0
(0L(0(
pxxLx(xxp
xpxL0xx(px
0xxpxpLx
pxTxpxLxpx
xp(xp
xpxLpxpp0p
(T((0
xxpL(pxpxp
TppxpLxpx
pTpxpx
xpxpxpxpxp
xpTppxxp
((0((T
0((0(
xpx(p(ppxp
0pxpT(p(x
xpxLxpxpxx
pTpxppxpTp
pxpxLx
0((L(
((L(0$x
px(xLxp
px0ppxp(pp
px)0)x
pxxpxL0p
xpxL0pxpxp
xpxpxp
((L0(L
T((0(0(L(q
x(p0ppxTpx
pxx0p
pxxpTpxpxL
0pxpxLxpxx
pTpxxp
T((0((L
pxpxpxp0pp
xpxpp
ppxx(xx
pxxpTxxpTx
xxpTx
0((L((0L
L0((0((L(0
T((0L
0(0L0(0(p
Lxppxp(xT$
(xpxTpp
xpxp(x
xpxLxTpx
L(0((L
0(T((0
pxLx(xp$
Lxpxpp(xxp
(0((L((T
L0((0L
L0(0(0(LL
xpxpx
pTppxpTxpx
pxLxxppx
L0(0L((0(L
0((L0
L((0L((0L
L((0((L
0ppxp0ppxp
TpxpxpLxx(
((0((0
0L0(0
px0pxp
xx(xpxLxpx
((L((L
L0((L
L(0(L
L0((L
xpTpxpxpT
ppx(xxp(p
0(0((
T((x(
xxpxLxx
pxpTpxpx(
00((0((L
L((0((T
0(0(0
0((0((
xpxL0pxpx(
L(0((L(0(
(L(0(L((0(
xLxpx
L((0(L(0
((L(0(L
L((0L((0
xL(px
pTppx
L0(0L
0xpxxTp(
0(0((0(L
L0((L((
pxxTp
(0L((0L(0(
0L0((L(0(L
T((0((T
0(0((0
p(0(L
0L(0(L
((L0((L
(L(0((0L
(L(0(L
(0L(0
L(0((T
L(0(L(0(L(
L101x1x
0((0((0((T
0(L0((T
0L((0(0((0
((0((L
00(L(0(L((
T(0((0L
L((0L(0((T
((T((L(0(L
((0(0
L((L(0
x-p(p
0(L(0((T
L0((0
)x)0)x1
0(0((0((0(
T(0(0(L
0((T(0
((T((
((0((T
((0((
(Hpplp
((L0(
x(px$
0(L(0((0L
0(L((0
((0(L
T((0((L
pHp$p
00L((
((0(L
L0((L((
ppxpL
(p$($
p$pp$(p
((0(L((p
z((px
Hpp$$(
((p$pp
((0((L(
pL((p
L(0(L
((0(L
0(0(L
L0((L((0((
(0L(0(L((
0((0L
L((0((0(0L
pxLpx
pLxpLp
((0(0
0(L((0
T(0((
0(L((L(0(L
L(0(L(x
(0L(0((0L(
(0(0(L(0
L00(L(0((
L((L(0
L0((L0(
px0xp
(x0(0
0L((T
(x(ppx
0((0L((0
L((0(
L(0(0(0(
(0((0
x($pp($
l0021
(0(0L0(0
((0L0
0(0((
Tyx(1Lx
1ppy:
1xU()
px(pp
pxp(x
($xp$(
pp$1yp
px(pp
x(x(xp
(pxp(xpp
$pxp(
pp(pp
xx(pxx(
pLp(x
((px(p
-0xy-0
p(xp(
--1Ty1
0101y
p(pxL
pp((x
xpp((
x(px$(p
((p(p
pxLpp
(px0x
p338-2
Roof. Prefabricated trussed rafter offering economies in timber and construction time, are increasingly replacing traditional cut-timber roofs. Condensation in the roof void is minimized by adequate ventilation (typically provided by a continuos air gap running under the eaves) and by a vapor barrier (foil-backed plasterboard), which prevents moisture rising from the living area below.
Building Construction (2 of 4)
The development of building construction
The post-and-lintel technique, in which vertical posts support horizontal lintels, has a long history; it is exemplified in its basic form by the ancient stone circle at Stonehenge in England. The method has been used from antiquity for supporting roofs, the posts often taking the form of pillars, as in Egyptian and Greek temples. It is suitable for timber as well as masonry construction.
A way of spanning larger openings is provided by the arch (developed by the Romans), but this is not required in smaller, domestic buildings. The pointed arch, a feature of Gothic architecture foreshadowed modern skeleton building in that loads were not transferred from the arch to the walls, but to load-bearing ribs, buttresses, shafts and piers. This enabled walls to be pierced for large openings.
In most countries timber was the favored material for dwellings. Where wood was plentiful, planks or split trunks could form walls, but elsewhere the spaces between the wooden frame were filled with wattle (intertwined sticks and twigs) covered in clay and, later, with brick or tile. By about 1600 - when good wood was already becoming scarce - most town houses in Europe were half-timbered, having a load-bearing oak frame filled in with various materials. The box-like frame was often designed to allow the upper story to overhang, thereby casting rainwater at a safe distance from the lower story. Foundations were usually of stone.
The large floor area needed by the factories of the 18th and 19th centuries was provided by the use of timber or cast-iron pillars to support beams and floors. The construction of the Crystal Palace in London for the Great Exhibition of 1851 encouraged the design of buildings with cast-iron frames, and it was experience with cast-iron structures such as these that eventually led to steel-framed multistory buildings and finally to the sky scraper. The latter became possible with the introduction of steel-skeleton construction, first used in the Home Insurance Building in Chicago in 1880, while the use of lifts (elevators) from 1860 on wards was a practical necessity.
Modern structural design
After World War II, skeleton-frame buildings became increasingly popular, especially for offices. Walls could be thin and light, thereby allowing the frames to support a greater weight of floor. The outer face of the building could take many decorative or practical forms, including aluminum or stainless-steel sheeting, enameled steel, glass and bronze. Sometimes these faces had a fire-resistant backing consisting of a concrete layer, insulation, seal and internal finish, forming a prefabricated sandwich.
Domestic dwellings saw fewer changes in the postwar years. Skeleton-frame construction, however, was used in the form of timber-framed housing, in which the timber members carried the loads and were covered by curtain walls on the outside, and by plasterboard or other finishing materials on the inside. In many countries, especially where skilled labor was scarce, prefabricated or industrialized building systems were introduced, in which the main components were made in factories for easy assembly on site. Panel systems, in which the walls were load-bearing, became popular, as did box systems, in which prefabricated boxes consisting of wall, roof and floor were designed to be assembled in various configurations.
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* VISUAL ARTS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Building Construction (page 2)
ftsTitle
xxpxpxpxpT
xpxppLpxLp
(xpxL(xpxp
xpxpxLLxpx
(xpxxpxLpx
ppxppxp0
pxpT(pxxpp
xLxpxxpxpx
LpxppxLxpL
xppxpp(xLx
ppTppxpxpx
pTpxL
xLxpxLp(xx
pxpx(px(px
pxp0pxp(xx
pL0pxx(pxp
LxppTpp0px
xppxxpx(pL
Lp0pxLpxpx
pxpxLxpxpp
xp(xppLxL(
pxpx(xpxpx
T(pxpxppxL
pxpxT
pxpxpLpxxL
xpxxLppTp(
xppT(ppTpx
pp(ppx(xpx
Lxpxpx
(xLpx(px(
xxLxpxxppx
p(pxpp0pxL
(xxpxx(xpx
(xpxxp(($
xpT(ppTppx
0pxLx
x(pp0pxpp(
pxpxppxp(x
ppxppxTpTx
y:$$xxp
pxpxpxT(pp
xpxp(px(pp
pxpxp(x
ppxpL(xpxp
pxp$(y:
(pxpLxxpx
xLp(px
xp(xH
x((xp(xpp0
xT(0p
xpLpxppxx
ppTppxpp
-$pxpxL
TxpTp(
xxpxpp
xpxxpp
(L(0($
Tppx(xT
xpxpp
(xx(p0pp(p
(pp((x
pLxp0xpLpx
pxpp0p(ppx
pxp0xp(xLx
p(xpL((x
xpL(ppxpxp
Tp$(y
xpTpxp(xxp
Lxpxpx
xxpp(pxpL0
pxpxp
xpxpp0(xpp
p0(x(xx
0pxp(xpxLp
xpTpxp0ppx
$pxpTpp(
pp(xpH(
x(xTp
xpTpp0(p
L((0(0((0p
1$pxpxLH(0
xpxTxL(
L0((L
0(L0(0(
L0((L
0(p(0
0((0(0p0p
(0(L0
p(0((0(
0(0x(0((x
L((0((p
x(0xx(pT(0
(x(x0x(
0((xp
(0$x((
x((0((L
xx((p(
$x((p
$(x((
pp$pp
-(-(1)
((xp$
y]yZ1
0y(1(
x(ppx
)(0zzy
pxp(x
xxp((
pxLp$(
p(p(p
(-(1(1(0
)0((00)00)
1-y:z
ppxp(
xpx((
1(y12
Lpx$x
TU($p
$$x0A
xxpxp
xx(Hp
Lxpp(p
xHxTp
x]yx0
1-11--1-
1--1-
--11-1
(x$$p
-11-11-11
-11-11--
1--1-
-11-1
Y-yx9
-1-11-11
(x((pp
-11--
Lxpxx
-1-1-
(0xx;
01xyy
yy0(y
00(-0
(p$(;
Tp((p
p338-3
Foundation and walls. The cavity wall consists of a load-bearing inner leaf and a facing outer leaf, joined at intervals by ties and containing insulating material. Damp is prevented from rising up the walls from the ground by a damp-proof course (DPC), while any water penetrating through to the cavity is channeled to the outside via weepholes located above a concrete fill. Foundations are built beneath all load-bearing walls, their depth determined by ground conditions.
Suspended concrete pot-and-beam floor. Suspended concrete floors can offer better insulation and allow speedier and drier construction than ground-bearing floors, but loading limits are more restricted. The underfloor void is typically ventilated by means of airbricks.
Suspended timber floor. Rigidity is provided by a herringbone strutting and lateral-restraint straps.
Building Construction (3 of 4)
Materials
Over the long history of building construction, there has been a steady substitution of man-made materials for natural ones. Brick, concrete and steel have largely replaced natural stone, such as granite and sandstone, as the latter require expensive skilled labor both in preparation and in assembly. In the same way, thatch and slate have given way to tile for roofing and cladding.
Although wood is still widely used for construction purposes, it too is increasingly being replaced by cheaper composite materials such as plywood (glued layers of wood) and particle board (wood and resin). Concrete and steel are now used for many building purposes, while synthetic materials such as PVC are becoming ever more common in non-structural applications.
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* VISUAL ARTS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Building Construction (page 3)
ftsTitle
xpxpLxpxTx
xpx(xpxpxx
pTpp(xpTpp
xppTppxp(x
pxLpxpxxpx
pTppxLpx(0
xpTpxpTpxp
LxpTppxL(p
pxpxpxpx(x
p0pxpxpL(x
L0xpp(xppx
xxpxxpx
xpxpx0ppxp
xp(pxp(xpx
LpxpTpxp(x
px(xx0pxpp
xpxppxpxpx
pxLxpxLxp0
p(xpxppxL0
xpxppxpxpp
xLxppLpx
TpxpxLppxp
xppxp0ppTp
xpxLpxxpxp
Tpxp0p0ppx
((pxpLxpxT
p(xpxLpxxp
Tpp0px((
xp(xpxxpxp
xpxppTpxpx
(pxpxpxxpx
pLppxTpx(
xpx0ppxppx
p0ppL(
0p0p0pxxpx
xL(xp(p0
xppxp(xppx
(xpx0
0pLxpxpxpp
xpxpxLxpxp
xLx(pp0pp(
xpxpxTppxp
p0xp0
pxpT(pp
TppxpxppL
(xp(xpL(0
p(p($(
xxLxpxpTpx
TpxppxL(xp
0ppxxpL
(pxpxLxp
xLxLppxpxp
0xpL0ppxp
pxxpxpxxpx
xppxLxpp0p
(xxppxxp$0
x$pxx
xpTpx
xpLx(px$
x((p(x(xpp
xppxpxppLp
xpxpx(px
pxpxppxpL
pxLpxLpxpx
1LpxL
xx$((
(($xTxppx
xxpxp
pxxpxLxp(
T((pHx(p
(pp(x(
$(($(
ppxpx
:(pxxp
xpx(pxxpxp
xp($(00
pp((p
9Hpxp((
ppxLx(px(x
(pLp(xpLpx
pLxpTxpxxT
pxppx
0pxLp0pxLp
xpxxpTpxpx
-pxpxpxp
xp(xp0
xxLpxpxp(x
pxpTpxpxpp
pxpTpxxpp(
pxppb
xpxxpTp(pT
pxpxxLxp(
(ppxpL
pxpxL(xL
xpTpxpxpxp
pTpxpp(
9ppxpx(
xpxpxLxx(p
xxp((
0ppxpxpx
xpTpxpx(px
0(T((
1p(pxpp
xxpxpxx
xp(p1
xpTpxxL(
pxpx(p
L((0((T
0((0((
-1-1:-
0(L((0((
p(xT(
0(T((0L(0(
0((p0((x
0(L((0((x(
((0((L(0
x(T((
0(T((0(p(
(0((Lx$
L(0(L
(p0(L
L(0(L((x
L(0(L
(0p((0(L
0((L((0
$p0((L((0L
$(x(L
L(0(L
x($(p
0x(0(L
(0(L((
0(Lx(
L(p0((
($xx$(
L((0(
pp(p(
x($pp($
xxpp(
px(yT0
Hpp($($
($p($p
-y1y(
yxy9yy
Lx10(y
($(($
10yy1y
-01-1
x-p(p
p(Hpplp
(p(1::
(pp(p($
x(($p
ppl(p
pH$p$($
(Hpp$
(pxy(
Hpp$$(
((p$pp
pL((p
pLxpLp
(xxp(Lp
$p(xx
((x$p
Tyx(1Lx
p0((x
x(0x1(0
(pxH(
01x(-
pp$1yp
x(x(xp
(pxp(xpp
$pxp(
pp(pp
xx(pxx(
x(p((p
p0pp((
((p((
y0x10
UxT0T
p338-4
Window. Weather-proofing is provided by mastic sealing at joints between wood and masonry and by a damp-proof course (DPC). Any water entering the wall cavity above the window is channeled outside via weephole located over a specifically profiled lintel. Double-glazed units are generally fitted to reduce heat loss.
Flat roof. Insulation is placed over the roofing felt, to minimize deterioration of the felt caused by changes in external temperature.
Building Construction (4 of 4)
New technology
In recent years building innovation has centered around the use of new materials and the potential for saving energy by means of refined insulation and ventilation techniques. The dome has also been resurrected as a means of covering the greatest area at the least cost. The stressed-skin dome, in which thin aluminum is stretched over a ribbed framework to form a combined curtain wall and roof, has been successful in specialized uses. In a refined version known as the geodesic dome, the somewhat heavy ribs are re placed by metal tubing in the form of linked hexagons and triangles.
Another trend is towards the development of tensile structures, in which the roof is supported by means of cables stretched from pylons. This frees the space beneath the roof from any supporting structure, thereby increasing the usable area. The most notable application is in new sports stadiums, such as the Munich Olympic Stadium.
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* VISUAL ARTS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
Building Construction (page 4)
ftsTitle
xpxpLxpxTx
xpx(xpxpxx
pTpp(xpTpp
TppxppTp(x
pxLpxpxxpx
pTppxLpx(0
xpTpxpTpxp
LxpTppxL(p
pxpxpxpx(x
p0pxpxpp(x
L0xpp(xppx
xxpxxpx
xpxpx0ppxp
xp(pxp(xpx
ppxLxpxp(x
px(xx0pxpp
xpxppxpxpx
pxLxpxLxp0
p(xpxppxL0
xpxppxLxpp
xLxppLpx
TpxpxLppxp
xppxp0ppTp
xpxLpxxpxp
TpxL0p0ppx
((pxpLxpxT
p(xpxLpxxp
Tpp0px((
xp(xpxxpxp
xpxppTpxpx
(pxpxpxxpx
xxLx(
xpx0ppxppx
p0ppL(
xyy]yy
0p0p0pxxpx
xL(xp(p0pp
Lxppxp(xpp
x(xpx0
0pLxpxpxpp
y010y
xpxpxLxpxp
xLx(pp0pp(
xpxpxTppxp
p0xp0
pxpT(pp
TppxpxppL
(xp(xpp(8
xxLxpxpTpx
TpxppxL(xp
0ppxxpL
xx((L
pxLxpxLxLp
pxpxp0xpL0
pxxpxpxxpx
xppxLxpp0p
(xxppxxL$0
x$pxx
xpTpx
xpLp(xp$
y9yy]
pp(pp
x((p(x(xpp
xppxpxppLp
(ppLxpxp
xLxpH8
pxLpxLpxpx
1ppxL
xx$((
(($xT
0p($8
xxpxp
pxxpxLxp(
T((pHx(p
(px(ppx
Zy9yy]yyU
$(($(
ppxpx
:(pxxp
xpx(pxxpxp
xpxppx(
Tp($(00
pp((p
9Hpxp
((ppxLx(px
x(ppT
pLxpTxpxxT
pxppx
(pxppxpx
xpxxpTpxpx
-pxpTpxp
xp(xp0ppxp
xxLpxpxp(x
pxpTpxpxpp
pxpTpxxpp(
xpxxpTp(pT
pxpxxLxp(
(ppxpL
pxpxL(xpxp
xpTpxpxpxp
pTpxpp(
9ppxpx(
xpxpxLxx(p
xxp((
0ppxpxpx
xpTpxpx(px
0(T((
1p(pxpp
p(x$$
xxpxpxx
xp(p1
xpTpxxL(
pxpx(p
L((0((T
0((0((
pp(pp
-1-1:-
(pp(x
0(L((0((
0yy99
1(19y
0(T((0L(0(
0((p0((x
yxyy]y
0(L((0((x(
((0((L(0
p0(($
0(T((0(p(
$xx((L
xy]1y
p0x((
yy]xZ
]y9y]
x(xpx
xy(xy
(pp($ppxp
x$Lxx
px(xy
-y1y(
p(x(x
yxy9yy
((xq((
pp(p:
Lx10(y
11y(1
yy80$
(y-($
x-p(p
)x)0)
(Hpplp
pHp$p
(p$($
p$pp$
0y101Z
x$xp(
Hpp$$(
((p$pp
pL((p
01(-y
pLxpLp
((p$(
pxx((
x($0x($
l00210
Tyx(1Lx
x(($p(
x(p(x
01x(-
(01(1
x0Hxx0
00y0x0
p(xpx
xHxpx
p(x$x
(x(xp
((pxp
(pxp(xpp
$pxp(
pp(pp
xx(pxx(
(p0xH0
xp($p(p
1xpp0
x(ppx
(ppxp
((p((
1(1(1
$(x(p
(xppx
1-11y
1-11--
-1--11
--1--1-
--11-
-1--1
-11--
1--1-1--11
-11--0
xppx((
011-11
-1-1101-
-11-1U1
1--11
11--11
1--1-
y--11-
0-11-
1--11
-1--1-
1--11
--1-10-
0-11-11
11--1--
1--11-
U1U1-
-11-1--
1U-11-
101U1
-11--110
(-11-1
-1--11-1
$0p$L
-1-11y1
11-1-
x(x(p
p340-1
ftsTitleOverride
Civil Engineering (page 1)
ftsTitle
Urban expressway in Ludwigshafen, Germany. Because it is impractical to drive urban expressways through existing cities at ground level, they are often built as elevated structures or in tunnels.
Civil Engineering (1 of 5)
In its aims, civil engineering is one of the most ancient of human activities: it is concerned with altering the natural environment for the greater convenience of mankind. It embraces the design and building of major structures and systems, usually concerned with transport: roads and railways, bridges, canals and tunnels, harbors and airports.
The first person to call himself a civil engineer - as distinct from a military engineer - is thought to have been John Smeaton (1724-92), designer of the Eddystone Light- house (1759) in England.
Although there were highway links in Mesopotamia from as early as 3500 BC, the Romans were probably the first road-builders with fixed engineering standards. At the peak of the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD, Rome had road connections totaling about 85 000 km (53 000 mi).
* POWER 2
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* RAILWAYS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
901,1
T1-,-11T1
1U10U
01U11T1
U9U11
1T911U1T
119TU
]0U\U]]1T
0T1T1\9
]y1T10
98U10
0U811
]T11T]
1T11-
\]01\190U1
]1U011
8U9T1T
UT11T
]U8U0
aU9U0
911]11
9\99]
]0U1U
0U9181
10U9U]
9\1891
0U9]1
yT-T1
0U00P
9x91U8
]\9]0
91]1819
1-T1U0
91\918
1T]]1
10U01,
U18T]
0U1U0
19]19a
y101P
]9]9]\
9a9]91]f
1\191
Q0U0,
T10U1T
99T9]9
1U0UTy
101U01U0
T0U10U1T11
U0110
UTUUT
9x0U]T1
UTyUxT
9x9T1
U0]]T
PMtq,Q
T9U00
-81T1
U1U1U1
1P1U01-
Ty0U0
1-T1U
]T]U0
U0U1-1
T1T]U
U10-T1-,
-T1,-1
P10P1
0y0UxUT--1
P1T1-
1]y\y
y0T1U
T1U0-
1T1U-
x1x1T
$yTP-10
UTUTUU-
1U011T
T1U1-1
TU1Ux1
QPpt,M
Q\HP)
T]1T1
1501-
-0]1U-
91-Q(
11T1T
(PU1T\
u1U01
11U11
11T-U,
1]9-8
1-011T
-1U11
P1010U
]:]91
P90-1U
T1TU0
Ux1T1T1
,(P1-
x1T1U10-
]yTy1U01T1
y0y0U0U0-
]U01T
101T11U1
9Q010U
-0U10U1Q
Q0U0U0
T1y0U101
xUxU0
T1U1-
0,U01
1T11-
UTU1-0
U]U01-
1UU10U1
U1y1TU
yUP]U0
$TP110
T10Q00U
]101T1
1T1U1
11T10
Y01U0
9=aea=
Y01U01
01U01y1
1T1T1-]U0y
0U]1U0U
1T51T1
]=Aa=]
y]P1U0
U011T
<]ia=@]=
T10U1
U0U1T
0U0y01TU9-
P1TU0
T110Q0
U8U,U0
T1T01T-01U
10U01
1-0-0U1
-U10U
U01T1
U0Q1T
1-19-
0U1T1T
0y10-
1T11,
1U01T1
U0U00
a]8U9
U]U19-
UTU0U
U1T11T10U
,1,U0
T11U0
9Y9U01-
-1U90
]=d=\
-0y01
U]U0U01
U01U0U
1T11T10
-011T11
099U19UU1T
U01U0U01
10U1T1T0U
01T10
1U1]0
TU11]
U010U
U1U001T110
U1y1T11
1]1911y01-
1-0U0U9U0U
1UT1U0T10U
01U0Q
a19T1
19]191
-TUUT-1U
1y0110U1
U01U01
1]119-
1TQ1U9U
T-1x1U
1U110U
U\U1U0U10
T11T10Q10-
11U91y
T1TUxUT-y
0U8U01
10U0UT1
9U818
-919U9]11
11011U
]1]]y-0
1T11xUT,
01x1T1T-0U
1T11-0
U\U0U0U01
e]9]9
51911
T1U8U
UUx1T-y1
0U10U1
-00yy]0
UTU0y1,
01T1-00
\U1-0
U91U1Q
y0-0-
U01TUxUyT1
)10U-0U
1T-1T-
]9U1:
19yPU
P9x1y
e]1Ub
U0U\y
1T1]01
99]9]
U\Qy\y
-0y]y
0U11U
eae]=
]a]]9
011UaU0
fa9U9
=]9]0
0-1T1T90
-9T1]
0U10U0
1]Y11
y1U,TU10U
9U]U1U-
\y8-110
UP]TU
UUx1T
1U0U10
Q01U0
10U0-
0UUxU
(U-T,,
]1U1-
T]1]]1
]L1U0y
-0U1]U0
be>]9
8]1T1
0-0U0
U1T,1
T10U90
Q0U0-
U09T10
1P10Q
)1U]1
-19U1
\y-1T1\
9]0]10
9=eae
]T1T1U]U
\9]99
]T1U01
U0U8Ta
]U0U0
1U010
U0U1-0
0U0U,
tx,x,
xyUUTU
0-0U1T1U
0U,U-
@]8\9
T11T1
U1-0U
]9\]\8
y0y\y1-
<9\9]
P-11U
]9U9]
-0UU-0
1y\10--
U01-0
,xPUP1P
a]191]9
1T1U01-01
yTP,x,
T1U0U0
9]9b9
-T11-1
a]9]9
]99]9
U9]99
]9a==
-1--0-
0Q10-
9=AaA
,PMTU
UPUTyxy10y
]9a9a9
=]=ebU
99a9=j
yTUUy
0--0U-
UyUU015-,
P0T0x
M0U,P
U0UTU
TUT,,yUx
M,U1--
Q0U,P,UTQ,
-1y1-T
U0Q,,1x
,UTT]
P1P0P
-Ux1P
Q01P(,
,U\U]
P0Q0T-
UtUQ,
,UTyT
(--L,Q
P),U,1P0
,,U0y]x
T]yx0-
U1U0Q
0-T10
-1T-0
191T1,P
x1-0U
,0-1-
a\a]a
ja99a1
=]9=]9]
U1U10
ia9]9
1U0UT
ae9=]=
UT10UT10U1
x101U9
9]98aa99
10U0U0
1U]U1T1
U1U0U9-
=]99a
]-1y01U0
TUU0U0
U-T10-
)P1Q0Q-
ja]99]=
TUTUT1
TU01]
U01U1T
y0U10U1
)-0U10Q
0-0U0
99]=eaf,
1x1U0T
1T1y]
=a]99af
y01-1
UT11U1
9=9]9a
U1T10U1T1
-0-1-
=e9]9=e
U101U
99]=a
T1U01T1T
U0U0-
x1T1-
01U01U
UT1-0
-11U1
U0UU11-
-0-0y
T1-1T1T
yyTP,
-1-0-
T101-y
1P1,0
,10U1T
99]99
U01T-
-0-101
,1,U-
85110
a]9\9ae
101T1U-
U1U0Y-
1TU-0
1-U0T
110U1
=]9]=
P1U01T
MUTU,
=9]99=
10U0Q
U10U0U
1T1T-U
0U1--
1Q0-T
T1P10U
=99]9=
U1T01U
]9]81]a
-1-1-
T-0U-T,1
P1T1U0U\y9
T1,U-
T1T11TU
T1y0U
-1T1-T
010U01U0U1
-1T10U0
T1U0-
-01P10U,10
1-0U0U1T1
-1T1U
11x1x1y,
U01U8
TUU0UTU
T1y01yUT1-
0U1P1xUT
y1T1U-
0y01xUy0U
U]UTy
1T1xUQ\U1
1T1Q1
T1U1T
yy10P
-01U0-
yTUyTyT1
0$,yUU
1T01-
,y1TU
1U1T1
1TUT1
,T0P\U
-0Q0-
0U0Q,
(-0U-T
QxUyU
]T,1,
PytyTy1Q
UxUT1
P)U0y
]xTPPx
10U10T0y\
T1U1U,U1
-1T1y0
UyUQ,
yPP(,P,
]9\99
1911f
p340-2
Civil Engineering (2 of 5)
Roads
Roman roads were constructed with a deep stone surface for stability and load-bearing. They had straight alignments and therefore were often hilly. The Roman roads remained the main arteries of European transport for many centuries, and even today many roads follow the Roman routes. New roads were generally of inferior quality, and the achievements of Roman builders were largely unsurpassed until the resurgence of road-building in the 18th century.
The 18th-century engineers, with horse-drawn coaches in mind, preferred to curve their roads to avoid hills. The road surface was regarded as merely a face to absorb wear, the load-bearing strength being obtained from a properly prepared and well-drained foundation. The Scottish engineer John McAdam (1756-1836) typically used a surface layer of only 5 cm (2 in), composed of crushed stone compacted with a mixture of stone dust and water, and then rolled. McAdam's later roads were surfaced with a layer of tarmacadam (or tarmac) - hot tar on which a layer of stone chips were laid. Roads of this kind were known as flexible pavements .
By the early 19th century - the start of the railway age - men such as John McAdam and Thomas Telford had created a British road network totaling some 200 000 km (125 000 mi), of which about one sixth was turnpikes (privately owned toll roads). In the first half of the 19th century many roads in the USA were built to the new standards, of which the National Pike from West Virginia to Illinois was perhaps the most notable.
In the 20th century the ever-increasing use of motor vehicles threatened to break up roads built to 19th-century standards, so new techniques had to be developed. On routes with heavy traffic, flexible pavements were replaced by rigid pavements, in which the top layer was concrete, 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in) thick, laid on a prepared bed. Nowadays steel bars are laid within the concrete. This not only restrains shrinkage during setting but also reduces expansion in warm weather. As a result it is possible to lay long slabs without danger of cracking.
The demands of heavy traffic led to the concept of high-speed, long-distance roads, with access or slip lanes spaced widely apart. The US Bronx River Parkway of 1925 was followed by several variants - Mussolini's autostradas, Hitler's autobahns, and the Pan American Highway. Such roads - especially the intercity autobahns with their separate multilane carriageways for each direction - were the predecessors of today's motorways.
* POWER 2
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* RAILWAYS
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Civil Engineering (page 2)
ftsTitle
WWVV3P,
,+,+,,V,WW
WV3WWXX
233]W
]W3W3,,
,32W233,3,
,232,-
QV]{]
123\2
44:e^4
V++12
+1++1++
XX34XWX{^^
e__e_X_^X4
^Y4343344
4W4{WW^
^]W]32-,W
W^W9W]4232
^^X]4]^3,
W2,VWV
PVWX{
,+,-23
VWVP2
,,++,
OzUUy
OOUOzVzV
WV2VVW
,,W-,Q
,'3.WW{WX
WW]^{XXWX
X3-3.-WW
2,322
3Q3-2,
3XWXW3
-Q-,,&+-%W
,|]WW
ee__e
_5;_;
e_e__;e_;
Q9{^3
^5^;:
45:5;;
3WW]W]X
3{4{4
X{9W{
WXV^WW
-]XV]3
3W^WWXW]X
3W^]]W:W
.434W
]XW]W]
3^W4W
3W:WX^W^
X^X3
^43 W
W^W\XWW
XXW{W
3{4W]X
{W^W3
VXWW^3X
.]WW]W
]W]X:
V4{]W
WW]^WX
WXWX,
-3-3W
W^VWX
XW2,3,
-, ,X
,2,W]
X]X^X
]W23]
]]WVW2,
X3|3W
3WW{9WW
W3WXW
4]X3{
WXWW4
W-X{]3
W4]XW4W
,494,:V-
p340-3
Civil Engineering (3 of 5)
Bridges
The development of the arched bridge in Roman times marked the beginning of scientific bridge-building; hitherto, bridges had generally been crossings in the form of felled trees or flat stone blocks. Absorbing the load by compression, arched bridges and viaducts are very strong. They were usually built of stone, but brick and timber were also used. A fine early example is at Alcantara in Spain, built of granite by the Romans in AD 105 to span the River Tagus. In modern times, metal and concrete arched bridges have been constructed. The first significant metal bridge, built of cast iron in 1779, still stands at Ironbridge in England.
Steel, with its superior strength-to-weight ratio, soon replaced iron in metal bridgework. In the railway age the truss (or girder) bridge became popular. Built of wood or metal, the truss beam consists of upper and lower horizontal booms joined by vertical or inclined members. The truss thus formed is designed to resist the three forces of tension, compression and shear.
The suspension bridge has a deck supported by suspenders that drop from one or more overhead cables. It requires strong anchorage at each end to resist the inward tension of the cables, and the deck is strengthened to control distortion by moving loads or high winds. Such bridges are nevertheless lightweight, and therefore the most suitable for very long spans. The Clifton Suspension Bridge, designed by the English engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-59) to span the Avon Gorge in England, is famous both for its beautiful setting and for its elegant design. The 1980 Humber Estuary Bridge in England has the longest span of any suspension bridge at 1410 m (4626 ft).
* POWER 2
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* RAILWAYS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Outline
ftsTitleOverride
Civil Engineering (page 3)
ftsTitle
yNlNls
NlHHlHH
llHHN
HHlHlrHrHl
NlrlHrHlr
lHllrllrlH
HllrHllHrl
lrHlrlH
lHllrlHllN
HHlHllHr
lHlNllrlHr
HlrHrlrHlr
llNlH
lHllHlHrNl
rllNllNlHr
HlrllrHlrl
HlrlrllNll
HrHlNllrrH
llNlrlNllr
llrllNlHrl
HrllrllrlH
rHlNlHrlHl
HlNllrHlNl
NlNlrllrHr
lHlHr
rHNlHr
NllNHHrllr
HlrllNlHrH
lrHlNllrlr
lrlrlHrHlr
NlHlHs
lNlHHlrlHr
HlNllHrHlN
llrllrNlHr
lHrllrllNl
rHlHrllNll
NllNlHrllH
rHlHr
rllNlHllrl
lHlHll
lHlHlrlrHH
lrllNlHrHH
rlHrHllNHl
rllrllNllN
llHlrHrHlN
llrHNlrHrl
rllrlHHllH
NHH$H
HllHHlHlHr
rlNllNllNl
lrHlrllNll
HrlHrllNlH
rllrHr
rlNHrH
HlHrHlHllr
NHlNlHrlNl
HHlNHlN
rHllrlHNll
rlHrlNlrlH
rlHrllrHlr
NlrHH
rHlrlrlHl
ytsNHHlHH
NHNHllrHlN
lNlrrlrHlr
lHNHNlHrlH
rllrHHlr
rlNlHrllrl
HrlHlN
NlrHrHHlrr
NHHNlNHN
lNlrH
rlrHHNlHlH
llHlHrlHr
rlHrlHrllN
lHrHrH
rllrllrlrr
lHllHlrllH
lrrllNlrHl
HrllNH
HNlrlHrllN
rrllNllrlH
rlNrHrllr
sNHHlHH
rHlNlHNlHr
HNrlrHrlHl
NllHlrlrlN
HllrHllNlH
NllNlHrlHr
lHrlHlNrlN
NlHrHlHrHl
rHlrrlHrrl
HrrlNllNrl
NHlrlrHrHl
rHlrlNlHll
llrllNlHlN
lHrlHrHHlr
HllNllrHlr
HlNlrllrHr
rNlHllr
HrHHlrlHrH
llHHr
lHHrHlNHlr
rlHlNl
HlNlHrllrN
lHHrlrHlrH
rHrlHHlrlr
HrHlNlNlHl
lrrlHrHHNl
lHrlrlHlNH
lNlHNllNll
NHrllHrlrl
NlrlNlrlHl
zsNHHlHll
HrHHrHlrlH
NlrlHHrlrl
lrHlNlNllH
rlrlrHrlHl
rllrHlHlHl
HlHll
lHrHNllNlH
NlHlHlrllN
HlrHlNllHr
rllNl
:^W33W4
V4WW]
lHNHrHHNlH
HllNlrHlrl
NlNlHrHNHr
lrHHrHrHrH
llrlHr
XWXWW
llNHllNlNl
HNlNlrHN
NHlrHlHlNl
HHrlHlrlHl
d3X3W3
W3^W^]XXWW
]:WX]X3X]^
lNlHlNHHNl
HlHrHHlHNH
HlNlNHrlHH
rHrHHrlHll
WVW2X
]WX3XW3
]W]WW4
]X^WX
NHNlHHlHNH
rHHNlNlHlr
HlHrHHrHll
HlHHlHlr
;W33W
W4WX4WX3X]
WW^W4
4]^WXWX
]X]X]4
NHrHrHHl
llHHr
rHrHHr
lHHlr
W]WW^WW
X9WXWV^WXW
^WX^]4
XW]X2W3
H$HlHH
NHHNl
NHHrHrHNHl
rHHrHHl
2W:zWXW]4
:{W33X34
]XWX]^WWXW
]]W3X
XW^W]XWW
llHNHHNllN
lrlHNlHl
lHHlH
^]3-V^
2X]W3^W^W:
XW3^W:]4]
4W]XXW3
4X]4]WX4
]X]XX]9W
W3^]W3]W3
rHrHNlHrlH
3^W]3W
^]WX]W3X]9
XW]WV^
X]{XW]WW
^]3]WW]:{3
WX9|W^3|3W
X33XW3X3
NlHlHrll
W4W]^3
X9X]4
|]XW4W]33W
:WX]X]X
^X]X^W3X3
WW4W3WX]^^
^VW3]3
2W]WW3
W3XV^W4WXW
W]X^^
XW:{W4WW4W
HHl$H
3X]X]
W^W]]X
]]W]]WW^V
X9X4W
3XW]4]4X]
9W]33
]3XW3WW^
3W]W3
W4]W3W3
W3VV]
W3W4W|
3W^W]4
3]WW3
4V]4]
^^W43
eW]^:W
dX3W3
3WW^3
3]W4W:W3
^]23W
4]X3]
33XW^
4^WX^
4W]X3
3]XW^
3]W]X9
^W3W33
33]3W
3W^X3
W^3WW
4W^W3
^^33WW
^W{2]
WW^W]
34W^]
3W]V3
39V3e
WW^W:
^X^XX^
4]X33
4]:^W
W]4WX
21+,1
^W]3]X2
3^W3W
3X]]3
eW^3|
39W]3W
^^3:-
3W^]4
^W^X^
2XV:3
e^]33
3W9^WX
2^W^],
4W^WV
4]4W3
9]3W3:
W]W^W
W3WW3]
W]W3]
3W4,^
-3W3X]
W3^W^3
3XW3X9
W]3W3W
^\WWXX3
W]4WX^
WXWXW
W9WW4
W43V-
3W4]X
W9XW3^
3{3W]3
32X33]
3W3WX3
3W]]W4^
W4]XW3
32,W23
W3WWd
3W]3W
3V^W3W]
W:W4^W
]3X3W
3W4W3:
]WWX3X
W33WW
3WW3W]
^]WW3
4^W]X
33W33W
W3W3^
2]]4z4
24V33W
4WX3,
29|:W9
W:]4X2
W43W9]
-3WW4
W]]3W
W]W^VX
W3W]3
W]W33
34]WX
3W23W3WV:
]W3W^
]^W3W3W
3WW]X3^W4]
WW9W3W9W
:W4]]4W4]
WW3X3:W4]4
]X9^3X^^34
3WW3]W
3W3W^4
]WW^3WX
W3]W3^W4]4
W3^W^3]W3]
W3]3W9^2^
:34W42W3WW
33W3W
W2XWW94W4W
X9X3]3W]4W
3W4]3:W:WX
3]X9W3X]W
9WW4W^:3
-24WW4]
W93WW9W33
4W:]W]3]
W3^W3X
XW4W3^3XW9
^3]W3W3
3W3WW4
WW^4WW]4WW
3W]3W43WW4
3]]4W3
W]3W]34
X3W93d
3]33W3
]34]4W^2XW
^3X9WW94]W
4^34W4W:]4
]X9WX]
|3W9W3WW
4W3W3
W9W3W9W3
]33V434]
4]W3]3WW:
3]W33]33]4
W4-]3^
W3W3WW3
XW4W4]X3X
33W4W3W^
X3W3X33
V3V324
rlHlO
e44
lHlrHlHr
OHlHrHHrHr
HlrHlN
lHlHNllNll
NlrlHNHHlN
lNlHrHHrlH
NlHrlHlHrH
lNlHHlls
lNHHNlHNlH
rHHrHlNHlN
lrlHrllrlN
NlHrl
rHlHNlHrlN
llHrHrllNl
HrHlrlHrHH
rHlNllN
NHlNlNllr
llNlrrlHlr
lNlHHrlHNl
lrlHNllr
NlHrlHr
rsHHs
HHlrHlHlrH
NlHHrHrlNl
lNlHlNlHNl
lHNlHHl
lHrHlrlrrl
lHrHlrlrHl
rlrHllrHrl
lHllHNHlrl
lrlHlrHHlr
slHHrH
rlNlH
HrlNlrNlrH
lrrlrHlHrl
HlHlrrHllH
rlrNllHl
tNlNlNlrl
lNHllHrHrl
rrHrlHlrlN
rlHrrlHrHl
HrrlNlrlrH
lHNlrHH
lNHrlrlHrr
NrrlrlrrlH
lrllHllNlH
HlHHr
HrONHlN
lrHlNlHlHr
HHlHlNlHrH
rrHlHllNrr
HrHNHlHll
HHlHHrlrNl
HlNlrlHlNl
lHNHHrHNHr
HrHHrlNlrl
rHlrHlNl
ssN$rHlH
rHrHrHHlNl
NzHlNHlNlH
rHlNHlHHll
NlHlrHlHlH
^^3WW
33W^3
HlHrHNHNlH
HllNlNlHHl
rHlNlNHHNl
HrHrlNHrHl
HrHrHNl
^^33WW
24{3X
srHrHHrHrN
lHlHNNHHrH
lNlNllNllH
rHlHrHlHHl
434V:W^^{9
WX]]X^W^W^
rHHyyz
rllHrlHrHl
NlHrlHlHNl
HNlHlrHl
W9W439W
X9X]^WX]
XX^W^^XXW^
_43
HNsyHHNlHH
lHrHlNlHNl
rHHNrHlNll
HrrlHlHlNH
rHlHrHrlHl
^^3W33W
W:{3W]W^^]
{]W]X4]:
^XW]X]WW3
rHlNlNlNl
lHrllrlHrl
NHrrllrrHl
XW3X33
4W^W^
4{XWW]X]^W
:W^W4
^W^X9
9^X4]X^]W^
HrHHrHlNHH
rrlrHHrHlN
lHllHNHlHH
4]X]3]X9
]W^WX]W]XX
X]XW^
9X]XW^
4]X]4
]^4^WW
sHHNlH
rHlrHHlNHH
HrrHlHHl
W43W:W^W3^
W^W^W^W
X]X^W:|2^W
W9]W^
^WW^X]]W
^WX]X
^WXVd
HNllN
lHrHHrlrrl
rHrlHll
_^3W:
3WW]3^
34]4W^3^XW
]4W9X]4W^W
49{4^WXQ
^X]XW^^W]4
X^4]X^W]XX
^WW9X
]^X]X4W4
rlNrHlr
HlNlHNlHlH
]3X33V3
3]W9{3^W^
X^3^W]W^]
^WW^]W]WW
W^W]]X]X]W
W^W^W]W9W9
WW3-3
$$*Oz
XWW^W4
4WW3X]X3
]4WW:{3X
WX]:{4]X]X
W34W3
XWX]W^W9X]
]W^3X
W4W43|]
3V^:W]:
WX9WW3^]W]
X3XW^3X3^X
3X3WW3
X]W43]X
W]X^^W^W^
4^W4^XXW^X
WX3W4W
3WW4X9
33|W^WX
W4W4^WWX3
:WXW3WW^]X
4W^3W9W
^X]XW^W^W]
X]^WWdW]W3
W]WW3]X
]X3393W
3XW3XW
:W:W^
4W4]W]X]
X3^3W]4
4]X9X
4W3X3
X]XWW]X
4W43XW^^
^W]43
W]3{9W3
W2^4WW^
]^]W4{9W3
X2XW^W:{3]
W4WW3X3
^^W4]-]3
WV4X]3X]4^
W:W:WW
W]4X]4
3]4^WW^W
X3W]3]WW3]
W:^4^9X33
X3]W3WX]]
X4W]4
P]X2X
^X3V3V3
4W3^X]4W
^WX3WW3W3W
^WX]4
WW3]W3]3
W4X]4:
]XWXWW:^W4
{3X^WX:W3
X9X3^W4W
W]4W3X
]W]:XX]3^W
34WW:W
X3{4^
3WW]W:
4XWX3^
3WW4V4
W33W^
^^W43W
,^4WW4
WX3XWX]|3^
3X]:W3^W^W
]3WW3^3
X3X3W
]X]3W:W3
34W3W
4W3]3
WW^W]3
W9W33
4]X3WW3
3W3X3]W:W4
3W3X3W3W33
^]-433
V4WW4
^WX3W
]W9X:XW:]4
W9W4]4W^4]
XWX3]
3W4W]
33W9W
3WW]3
3XWXW
W3XW3W49W3
3XWW3X9X
:WW4W4W
W3W3W3
WW3^{3]4]3
W^WW^3W]4W
]3W]4]X]
]X3W^
V3WW4W
WX3WW39]W
]3^W4
{]X9X
3]4WX:4]_
XW4]4
W:X3W4
d3W43
WX]W]W:
W3]W2
]W4WX3X3W3
W:WXW^
93WXW3^
34]3^WWX3
XX3^W43^3
:]X33W33X
]W9X9W]4]
W:W4]^4
3W]3WW]
X9W3X3
X]39W
3]X3^
W^2WW3
W]^3:W3W33
^d^]3
WW3X3^W4]
X]X3WW3:
:WW4WW^4
W4WW^
3^W3W4
3X]WW
W^4]^-d
^^3423
]3]3W3XW9W
4WW:W
4]33d
3]^W3^W3]3
3W^]WW
^3W33W
4W33W3
3W^]X3
]3X:W]:W]3
^W4]W4
3X8W3XW4
4W4]W3W
XW4W34
^]43W3]-
W4WW3WWX9W
^3W:WW]
,3W4W4]3
]X9W33]3]]
WW93]3X9
33W3WX
^3WW4]3W]4
4]4XX3]WX
4^3^]X
X9X9X4WW92
3X3]W3
WW3W9]-W3^
]4323.W
2^3X3X
4W4W3W:3X3
3^W]^-
X94]W:
3W4V4W4W]3
3W334W
3X34W4WX
W33X3]33
4W]W3]X3
X3X8X
WW3]W
4W^3W9W]
d^X34
43W3W43
W334W4
X3W4W3
49X9WX39W
3W3W:W
349WX3]-
]W]3]33]
W3W^33
3]W3]3]3W3
^VX9X]W3
^WX3X3WW3X
34W4W
3X9W2
W9W4^3:
X9X3X
]3X349
33W33
W3WW3W3W33
V4WWV4
3]W3X
{3]4W
2W9-]_
:]424
W3]3W43W:W
434]X
W9W4^V4]XW
:W^4]^43
393W43W
^]33Q
3]3WX
W4]WW]WW3W
3V4\3
W3WW3
3WX3W3W4]V
4]3W34W
W43W^3342
]^W3W33
4W3X]4
3X3^W33^W3
]4W:W^3W4W
3W3WW
34W4]4
W24W^
2W3WW9XW3W
]W43W
^]422V
39W3]3W93W
4W34W24:W4
W43^]W3XW^
3W4:W4]W3
]3X9W3
3W9WW3:W
X]X4WW^
W3]W3W4
49W3X3
W39W^23
W3W4]]X3]W
3^3W33W
X3W3W
2W3XW
4WW]3W4VX3
:3W3W33X3W
]3433:
3X3^W43X3:
W4W^3]3X3]
WX9WW33
W43]3
W24WW
^]X23V
-3W433WXWW
3W9W3W93W4
\WW3]4WW9W
3W]3WW3W34
4]W39V
W3XW394
4W3]42e
W3:W93WW33
:W3]33X
9W3WW9W3]3
4W^33
9339X39W3
3]W3]33W4
3W3]34W:2X
3W3XW93]33
W3WW9W4W93
4493X9W33W
933W3W3:
4W33X3X3W3
^W4W4343XW
3W43X33W3
W,3W3W3
2W493^W3W3
]VW39W4
9WW3W3
WW3W3W]W
W3W93WW3W3
9W9WX
]W3X9W33W3
X24W9X
W34]4W349W
4WW39XW]4W
33W:WXW4]X
]W3W3^2:
X34W32.33^
{23W93W
W3W^3W9X
33^3W933W
39W3W39W3W
33:33]X3W3
^34W3X4W43
33W]3W
4V]3WW3
W24V42W
3W33W
W34]4W4W4W
W:W3:
4W:3W:W944
33434V4
3434]X]
WW9W39W4VX
2W393W33W3
W3WW3W3343
WW9W34
W342W4
4W4W434]
V3323V3W3
p340-4
Picture
Outline
ftsTitle
Civil Engineering (4 of 5)
Cantilever bridges, such as the 1889 Forth rail bridge in Scotland, exploit the potential of steel construction to produce a wide clear water space. The spans have a central supporting pier and meet in mid-stream. The downward thrust where the spans meet is countered by firm anchorage of the spans at their other ends. Although the suspension bridge can span a wider gap, the cantilever offers better stability, which was important for 19th-century railway-builders. The world's longest cantilever span - 549 m (1800 ft) - is that of the Quebec rail bridge in Canada, constructed in 1918.
In the 20th century, new forms of construction have been facilitated by the use of prestressed concrete - concrete surrounding tensioned steel cables that counter the stresses that occur under load. The box girder - a massive hollow box-shaped girder, which is both strong and light - has become a key component of concrete bridges.
Navigational engineering
The Pharos lighthouse, built at Alexandria in Egypt in about 280 BC and still standing until the 14th century, testifies to the antiquity of navigational engineering. Canals also have a long history, although it was not until the invention of the miter gate in the 16th century that extensive canal-building was undertaken. The miter gate, formed by two leaves meeting at an angle and pointing upstream, greatly simplified the construction of locks, which are used where canals pass over rising ground. In the 19th century, inland waterways suffered from railway competition, but canals for ocean-going ships remained practicable, and the Suez Canal of 1869 and the Panama Canal of 1914 shortened key shipping routes.
Tunnels
Tunnel-building was developed in the 18th century to enable canals to penetrate hills, and the same techniques were exploited by the 19th-century railway-builders. Tunnels through hard rock could be unlined, but in soft or moist ground millions of bricks were used as lining. The world's largest tunnel is the Seikan railway tunnel in Japan (1985), which is 54 km (33 mi) long. This is about 4 km longer than the projected length of the Angle-French Channel Tunnel (also an underwater rail link), work on which began in 1987.
* POWER 2
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* RAILWAYS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Civil Engineering (page 4)
sNrssyz
HlHllrllHN
HllHlHrlHl
NlHlNlrllr
lHlrlrlHrl
ylHlHlHlHl
slHHl
HHllHlNHlr
HlHrlHrlHl
HlHrllHlHl
rlHllH
zHlHHrHl
HHllHHlHHl
rlHlHrlrHl
rllNHHllHl
HrlHllHH
NlrlrHllHl
rlNlrllHlr
llHrllHrll
HlHlHrlrlH
lrHrlHHllr
lHllrHll
rllHlNlH
NllHlHlHHr
llrllHlHlr
lNlHrHlHlH
rHlHH
HrlrlHllrH
HlHlH
HlHllrllHH
llrHr
rHlHrHrlr
HrHlr
HlHlHlHlHH
rHlHrHllHl
rlNlHrlH
321223
zHHrll
HlrHHlHllH
rlHlHrHlHl
lHllr
rHrllrlHlH
HlHrl
rllrlHllHl
rHlHHlrHlN
lHlHrlHlHl
rllHHrHlHl
HrHlNlHHlN
lHHNlHlHrl
HlNllHrHrl
rlHrllrlrl
rllrllrllN
HlrlHllrll
rlrllr
HlHlHll
lrllrlNlNH
lHrHlHrlHl
NllrHlrHrl
rlNlrHlHrH
lHlHlHl
$HlrlHrHr
rHlrHrllrl
lrlNlrlHrl
NlrlNllNll
rHllH
NlrlHl
lrlrHlrlrH
HrllrH
Nllrlrlrl
rllrHllH
llHrN
HrlNllHlrl
HlrHlrlrHl
rHlrNlrlHr
HrlrlrHHrl
rllNl$HlHr
rHrllHlNlr
HlrlHlN
rllrHllHlH
HllrHHllHH
HllHHrHrlr
NHHllHrHrH
lHlrHrlr
HNlrlrHllH
HllHlHllHH
Hllrllrl
HrlNHrHlrH
sHHlHlHrHl
NHrHrHrlNl
HlHllrllHl
HHlHllH
rHrlrHrH
rHlHlHH
HllHlHll
lHHlH
rllNllHrll
HrlNlrHlHH
HllHHlHHll
rHlHHllHl
NlHHlHrl
rlrHrHrHlN
lrHrlrH
HllHlHllHl
rlHllHH
lrlrlHl
lHlNlHlrHl
HHllHHlHlr
llHHllHlHl
HrllrOHllH
rllHHlH
rHlrHrHrHr
lrllrHlHlH
HllHllH
HllrlHHNll
HHllHHlHy
W3WW]
W]WWV^
rllrlHlHlH
rHlrlHlHHN
llHlHlHlHl
lHlHllH
NHlHlHlrHl
lHHllHrlHH
W|9X]W
3XV3]
HHlHlNlrH
lrHlrHlNll
rllrlHrHlH
HrHlHlHlHl
HHlrlrllrl
lNlNlN
NlrHrlrlNr
lrHHlHll$l
^W^{4
^
rlrlNlHrHl
rHHrHHlHrl
HlNHlrll
lHlHlHlHrH
lrlrlHrlrl
rllrlrlHlH
llHlH
^-3WW
V^XV^3
HllHH
HlHrlrHlHr
lHlrlHHlrH
lHHlHrHlHl
HlrllrllNl
lrlHrlrllr
-]XWW
W3XWW
NHHrHl
rHHrlNllN
HHrHlHr
llHHlHrlrl
HlHrllNrlr
llrllrllr
HlHlNlH
HlrlHrlHlH
rlHHlHHlHr
HlHHll
lNHrHllHrH
rHHlNlrlrH
lrlNHlHlHr
HlHlHllHlr
HrllrHlHlH
sHHrl
lHllHlHlHl
HlHrllHlHl
lrlHlHHrHl
HllHHll
$$Oyz
HlHlHl
rlHllHlHlH
HlHlHHlH
HHlrHHlHlH
$NOyz
]WX{9
W]W]W
$llHHllHlH
HrHlHlHrHl
HlHHll
^W32,
4z493W3
3XWXWW^
HlHNllHHlH
lHlHrH
]4W4W,3
rlHlHHlHl
]W3W-]
W]WW3
-]{4W
X]W]XVW
lHlHlH
]VV+:
3Q24V33-
\.9WW
WXW]W3
lHllr
]X]W2
]33WW3
^P3W3W:]
43WVWW]W3{
3W3WV
WWXV4
X]WV3]
3W]X]W2
XW]WW3
33X]W4
^W42-3W
3WXW]W
3W]X]
X3]WW3^
3]WXW]WX
W3]W3WV-]
2W32W
WW]WW3{3
]33{3
4WW]W]
^WWX3W^3W3
3]3WW3
W3]3V
zz+I$$
$$N%O
^X3V3
4]WW3
W3]W3
239WW3
3,42W3W
VWW4W^3^
4W33]
W3W3W]W
3WW3W33W
]4-9W3
WXWW33
3WW43WW
3WW3W3
]W]3W
V]3]3
W3XW:V
:WX33W]
9W]3]
^]W]:W^WW9
W3]WW
]4WW3]3^
]W]W3
W9]W^3
XW3WW
4VW3W3W
3^2XV4
W]WW^
WW3W3WW33
]^2^3W
3^W39
]-3V3]
]X\X]3W
3X34]4
V33]33W]
4V3W]{
]-]W3
X8W,d
W]3]3
]4]W3]
3]W4V
W^93]
]3^3V
3:XW9
3W9W32
]3^33
34]Wd
39W]3]
3WW3W
^]9W^W
393|2^3
3^]4]
3V4W4
39WW3]3
2{33V:
W^W4]
W9W3W33
3W4^W4
39]X]3
3]W33
WX9WW
233]2X]
3^
NHHlHllHll
lHrHlNlHlr
lHlHll
NlHrHlrHlN
HlrllHlHlH
lHHlH
slHHllHr
HlHNllHrlr
lHrHHlHHlH
rlHlHl
lHlNHrlrlr
HllrHlHllH
r$HHlHHlr
HrHlrllHlr
rHHlHlNlrH
lrlHrHlHlH
rlrlHllHHl
HHlHlr
lNHHl
lHlHlHrHlH
lNlNlNHrHr
lrHNHHrHlH
lHHlHrHlHH
lHlrHHNllN
HlrlHr
HNHlNllrHN
HlNHlrlHl
lNHllNllHl
HHlHHl
yHHlHrHll
rlHlHlHlH
rlHHlHHll
^9W3X3W2
sHHlr
XXW3X4V
{:WW]
^XV3^XWX3W
W^W3W]XVXW
42X8W
VW4W2W
W]WW3
4WXWW^
XWW]X
X]XW3
3W42W
4WWXW
W34W3W
3WW9WW3
]3W]4]
X3WWXWX
WX]33
]XW4W
34W]]W3
W]]XW
X^WW3WWX
]WX3WW3
VXW4WX
4{X3WX,W
W^]W3
QWW9XW3
WW3W]3
]WVWW]4
]XWW3WV3
W3W{^
]WWX2X3
]3W4WW3
X3|4WW^
3WW33^
^]W,3
WW]XV3W
3W3W33
4W9W2
WW3W3W
W]X3X
X{3W3X
3W3X]WW
4V33X
3WW:W
9W^W]WW
4V434
,3W34V]
3W3]V
WWX]W3
]X3W-
XW]X3
X3]3WV
4WWX3
33W3V33
3W]2WW
W233V3
WWXW4W
W3WW3W
]3WX3
3W4V42
323WW2
3W94V^
X3XW]
-4V324
3W3WW]W
33WX]
4WW3WW
V3]WW4
W]3WW
WX]W]
dWXWW9W
3WW3-]
]X23PW
X84]W
33W3W
3W3{W]^
2W4VX94
3{3WX]W
{93W4
W3W3WW3
3]3W3W2
WW3^2W
WX]X]W
^W3^W
,W33WW
3]W3]
]P+{2
2V3V4
^VX3W^]2
2X33W3WW3^
d-33W
^^]]4VW
W3{3W
X2]WW
WV33W23W:
4]WW3
V4V33W
^3W32X
4W9]34
.V43W
3W323
2X]3W
3W3WW3
WV2WW
W-^V43W
3]W3|V:
4]WXW3X3
WW3WXz
W3]4V^
33W]W3]
W,33W
3]W3XWW3]3
]WV32324
W3WW3
4:WWX8
3W3W]
X3V]9WW3
W3WW3
33]W3W
3393X3
W]{3W
W4W]3W
]3433X9XW
4W^]3]XWW3
W3W33{
43]3WW3
XW]3W
W]]W3W]
3]X2W
3V3WW23V3W
3W39W9
W3W3]3
32]W4V
V4]WW3
W]3]V4V
32WW3W
24WW4W
W3W3]
]W]W3W
4]4W^2
3^W]|3W
3W3^33W
^-W3W9V43
W933V:
4V4]W]W
3W9WW]
]3]34
V4]WW
^3,3W3
^]]22,
WW3]3W3W
4WX33]
WWX93
3:W]4
]X3]4W3
W339WW3
-WW3W3
4W4W]3X
W^3W3
W]X9W
W3W3W3]
W3W3W
39{49
3WW3X39
WW3W9
]3W9W4W3
23W3^W
W329^23
X9X3]WW
3W:W4W
3]X3W
3^WW3
3W:3^]
3VW2W9
3WX3WW3
W9W33
3W3W2W3
3433W]
43W]XW
9WW9WW
,9233
^W9^V9X
3W9W33V
Q2X34W
4WX3WX3
-3W32
]W32W3
9WW33
9W3W3]
W4^33
2W33W-
33]W3
W33W3^
p340-5
ftsTitleOverride
Civil Engineering (page 5)
ftsTitle
The Thames Barrier at Woolwich, London, is the world's largest tidal barrier. Opened in 1984 to protect the city from flooding, the barrier consists of nine massive concrete piers running in line from bank to bank. The wider central gaps in the barrier, each spanning 61 m (200 ft), are closed by specially designed 'rising-sector' gates. When open, these gates sit in curved concrete sills on the river bed; when required to block the tide, they are rocked into a vertical position.
Civil Engineering (5 of 5)
Dams, initially used for flood control and water storage, are of great antiquity. The crescent (horizontally arched) dam, which first appeared in the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century AD, enabled a much greater weight of water to be held than was possible with earlier constructions. Correct judgment of underlying rock strata is as important as good design, and a number of catastrophic dam failures have occurred because the foundations proved inadequate in the long term. Concrete is now the preferred material for dam-construction, but earth, rock, stone and brick have been used in the past.
THOMAS TELFORD
The Scotsman Thomas Telford (1757-1834) trained as a stonemason but went on to become one of the most celebrated civil engineers. The peak of his career was reached in the early 19th century, when he built roads, bridges, canals and harbors. His roads were noted for their level alignments. The lower course was made up of hand-placed stone, to a depth of 18 cm (7 in). The upper course was the same depth, but constructed of broken hardstone. His roads were finished with a 25 mm (1 in) layer of gravel, and would typically measure
5.5 m (18 ft) in width. The London-to-Holyhead road, including the famous suspension bridge over the Menai Strait (1825), was regarded as his masterpiece.
* POWER 2
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* RAILWAYS
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
]UTU0-UP1T
,T1x0UUyy0
1yT10P
U010T1
UUT1P
]-0UU
1U011y
U0Q1T11
LQQ%uM
1PUT,,P,
PU0UP
y1,1T1
0U01y
1T10U,
,U01x1
T1T1UU
U,T,U
0U0-1
1y0U-0
$,H,$,$,
UU0y1UUT
0U0,U01T
TUx10UTTUT
1x9y9
U-0U1y
1x1UP]
x01U\y1,U1
y0U0U
0Q10T
]U,0U
U0y0y1xUTy
,1T10U0UT1
P1U01
1-\T]
]yTyT
yUxTuTyt
UxuxUt
)tMQ-M,
%$P$$
P1P1P0x1
x1P1x,x1
yx-U0P1
P1x11T-011
T10P1T
QQU-t-0-
L-P1Qp1yUU
UTUx9
1-UU0U,y1
,Ux1x1yUT,
UTU101
,T10T1
0T0\0T0
T0T9T]P1
1UTU0
UTTUTT]
t(T1UTU1
,UUQ0P10U0
1UTQ,UP
0U01P1
Q\UU\UP
Ux-y1y-yy0
UyyU}U
y1Uy1TU1y
U,11y]
yUy1)PUxy
--U1Q
y1]TUTU1U
y0]]T19U
0U1U1
TU1x-
10-0y0
10Q01T1U01
10-T,U01TU
0y10]T1Q]
y1,10
1Tx-0
-y0y1U10y
]T]y]
y1-,U
-1T10U01y-
TU0-T-
0Q1,-,
UUQy10
,U0U0
-x1x0UTU
0yTU]-x]y1
T1Q0U
-1T01U
-UT1UU
y1\1x1
1t1,10
y0Uy1
-UYyYyU
-x,0T1
YT1-T
11T1101-x1
1U]z]U]
U-0U1x1U
1T-,-]0
,TTyTU
]y1x1,
9x1xy
x1y1y
0y1TUyyUx1
x1yTUTTUT
]yYy\y
\yTU\Ux
T,-0P
]y0y]
yyTt1x
Ux1xU
1x1y0
UyUy\
Uyy]y
U1yUU
0y0U1x
1t1x-
TUx1Ty]
Tx1xTy]x
UUYTy]
0--T11T1T
P10Q0Q0
TUTUPU
TUTy1
U]yY]
y1T-]
P11YUT-9)x
]y]x1xU
yUT]U
]y]yYxU
]y0U\y&
P-]9x
0yU0U
1y0U]yY
UUyY]
yUYx1
xUyyU
UyYy1
UyTyU
UYyUy0
1y0y]
-UPUy1P1
-1y0yU
y]UTU
y]y9t
U]]yy1x
1x--1y
1Q0y\1,
TUU1T\U-
Y-TU--
01TP(1
QT10-1y-1T
]yTP1y]y1
UT1xfy
]y]y]y
Uy]y\T
Ty11-0U-,U
,U91-T
UU0TUyUy
P(t(P
y1-0y
UP1U1U
]y\yU
T1-1T1yyU
ZUx]y
X0T1X
]PLx,
10U1]
P101u
y0UT1
1T9t1y
Uy1x11],]
1P1-UU]U1-
x]1TU
Ux]Q0y]y1
11T,UT
y]y0Q]
0yT,]
y9yP1
108yU1U
U],U-T
T,T1,1T
0x0,0x\
$$1x0xTy,T
,0,xTTUxUT
,M10y1]
UQ11UT
P,T0t
Q0y1xU
UUx]x
TP1t(UQ
x-TUPMP,1P
0UP(y,
TT-P1P
,]y1TU
1T-Uy
(P0-,L,x-L
-0QPT1PTPU
P0Q0P(,
0PLx0
,Lx1x
x,t(y,Qp
T-x-L,,
T,P0,
x0x0Q,1x0t
x1x,PUUTy
,yP(P,Q0y0
QUP,xUtTy0
xP-xP]P,0Q
x1QT0
-01P1
Ty-]yT
,,xP(,Ty$
y,T,U0,0
x-0xU-xTPT
yT,1x1TT
u0UPTP
0P0t1xTT,U
T,x0y0u0x-
,yx0y0P0t
x1t-L00x0
x,PyTPUx
0TPT1xTQ0x
x1T1P(y00y
xUx,L01
y,ytUP0x0
,0yTP
PUP-x-T-0x
x1,,U
x1x0x1PT
xu0P0t
UUPx,(,1T-
x,Q0u0T,0t
0t1t1x-t1x
1t1xy
00U0PT
0t1PTP0xPU
PUPTx1t1UP
x,TQPTQ
UxUUPy,U0y
,UTU\Q0-T-
1x,x1P-
0T-Ty,UPU
Tt-,-x0u00
p1T,(1T,
-yUT-
1T1,1
(P0T1t
,p1T,
U0,,x
(T-x0y0-Ty
0T]P0t1y0,
y,0,yQ,x1y
TQ(0y,TU
PTy,TUxUyT
T,T0,yUTTP
UPPy,T0t0x
0y,x-TP-,T
,yx0x,x,y
MTQ1t
T1PTU,x0UT
U0Pt0,1x
P0P-T
-Uy,U
U\L1T1P1Q(
u0x,P1,
0Q,t(,U0
T0t1P1x,x
Q0,P1,0x,P
,TPTy,P)0t
1,T,P0t1T1
PTx,Px,x,T
,x,T,T
,(T,,xTQTL
\pT,U,Q\p]
P1y10UQ
T-TUT,1,
1x10,x,0y
TyTP0,
,yPLU
U1P1tQTQ00
U-,U-1
0y-0P-
T1,11P
T-P1P1Q
(U0UTUP1P1
T-UP)P1P1T
1TTQ0y1,1P
(1,y0-00T1
0Q-0PPM0U,
P1PTU0,1t
,,(x01x-x
TQTtUTP1xy
10P-L
1y]P-y
UTUxy1
x1x0}T
Uy0xUTxU
UxT]T9
1TUU|UyTy1
1UU]Uxy
UU01T
11Ux1x
1U0U1QTyU1
x-UU-T1-L1
U0Q0U
0U1-T1TU
,yyT0
U\U1]
\1y1y1
TQ0U-0y0y
-0Q,P-
1P1U0U,0T0
yUTy-0
U0y1U
TP11-
0U01TQQ
0-1T1
-0T]tU
T10-,
1U,-1U0
-Ty\T
,U,T,U
y-01Q
11-0P,x
1T0T1T,T,x
Uu1-,
]T10U,
,-1U11
YH1T-
-0U0U
llP1U-0U
T1x18
1yz0U
UT0-\
T101U
lTUTUt-
U]--P-5
U1-,1-1
-,y10Q
P,$,P
Q,--U1$P$H
1010T
yTU01UT
1T1T0
1y0-]t
]T1T1y10U1
P9L-0T
91y-0
T1Q-0
P-1U0
U01U0P
T-,UTU
y,U0y1x
xUyPTUP,
0U1y1P101U
TU-11
(10U1x
01T1P
U,U10
U1010
P,PPq,y
P(0y1x
1x1y,y\yUx
YTU-U0]T
U,P1U0U0T
T1Ux1\
,U$u$lHtHu
Tu,u,u,u,
U-x0P
T1y0,UTUT
1x1U-y
T,UTU,
U,1U1
\yTyy0y1t
1x1UT
-01yy0
01x11
yUUT]
xUy0UTTy
0yTy0
]TUTyyTy
P,yTy
TUy\0T
xPLPTt
9y0y]y
,t0$,$,0PL
y-URT
U],11T
y]y\
y]-y1
10,UU
P9U10
1Q1-0
PtH,$,$T
11)-U
Ut1,-
Tz--1
t,P,P,x,
U10Q0
yPPTt
LxTxT
y1Q>]
-0Q]L
1-11UU
y-11U
$H$$H
QLPt($
U,yy,
1-0-1P10
1-y10UT
-$-t1PU
1U1U1
yutyTQP,U
LUPP]
0U)0U
-TPy0Qy
11y1-
]yYP]y
UUy0y
Yt1P]
y1x1TT]
Ux,P]
t(QxQyQ,
yVyQx-uUy
1,qUQUP)-M
,)y-$-,
-TuxU
T1TU0
0T0TUT
0P00T,
T]P,UTU01x
0P,P0
$0uPT
TTP00
x,y0x\
TxyTtTy0T
1P1UU
M1-0-
Tyx,xyU
UxUxUTPT
,P0UTP
yTxxTxy
MPQPM
TyTyT
x0P0x
,y,-)
yP-xUu
1t)tU-u
,9\1x
]yy1x
x9y1y1
1U,0UT1
,xP0Q
1]-,U0-
,U0T,U
0y0T\y],]U
x0}0Q1x
QUY$Q-,
Uy1xUT-T
1]T1T1,
-TU1U
0y0P
T\x80\
,T00x
\y0yYUT
UUT0-U
1\y1UT
0yx]x
y0100
0yP1)0Q
y1y01Q1
y1y0y
TUy0QUU0y1
y1T1U-
x,Tx$
0P0|T
xPU0x0x1T
,1x1T0UUx
T01TU
y1-0-
-:-:U
1T1U0
1U-TQ
-1U1P2
-,UP1
Txyxx
-U0U,
1YUP1
y10y1
yby-y
1y1V]y
y,QT$
Qy,xP
Q,yUx
1-TU1
-1P0-T1
xUx-QT,-T1
yPtTP
UT1QU
T1U0P
x1Q0U
10-1U
0T,U1
]yUyxU
y0uyx1x
Uy1y1U
1T0P0,x
01,U0-,
)T1xUx1x
P-PUx011u1
1(1P1y1]
--,--0-
U1P10
,011U1
1,U,-1
y2y21U^1
-P,-,
1y-Y-1T
1T--1T
Uy-11y
PUyUP
-Q]bU
1Q0y,
0Vx]Q
y19x]
]9y:y1U1z,
0T0TT
1uT1P
TyUyP
LU0Q0Q
,L1x0
,xxUT
,T0,x,
1,U-T
U1U1-
P-L1P
-]--10
y0T1P(
Px,T1
0U,14Q0
-1TYU0YUT,
1-Y1z1y
-Yy1y
Mtq,u
Uy-)u-q1
0\8T\x0
TZ9YU
P10yUy
U-UT,
PxPP,
\0U]\U
TyTyxU
08\8\\08\0
QM,yQ
t)t,Q
%PMttMuxP
u]y]y
-1,1U
X8]018
5T40x1
}\110xT
x-\y1U
1YUUT-
-]101
1U1T11y
U01Q]
Tyyx1-01
11--1
11x1Y
,yUU1y
-1TQ,U,U-1
U1U]1
T1U1y
xx1yTU
19UU]11yyx
1UY]U
y11U1UTy
1U11UU
x1PU-1T1
-101UU01y
11U1U1-
U1)U0U1y
UU]-]
Ty11yTUU
U110y11P
1:y2-
y0U]y1
1y11p
-1-U1
1Q]10T
U-011P11
]:U1
1TyUY
01101-
9U1U9-1y
U11yU
1]U11
1t1x1
Q0U,y-x
1x1x1P
U0U1y1y
-10UU
,xQxUy
y11U1
])UVU
P1]1Q,
$1Q-PU
-1-UyQ
1-1U11
$PP,P,
1-U-1
9y11:U0
Q1Q1)
$$P$t
8]9]89
8898T9
1-z]z
,P-u0
qQ1(t$
--1-11y
]]-11-
U9T981
-]-U1T1
U^1TU
11U1U-
1U,ut,
puQQt-L
y]11L
y1x\UU
1tyPxU
x]P1T
1z-2U
U0t0Tx0
11Uy\x0T
Uy]yTQ
Lxtx1
-11--1
11U1Q
LU1-1-11
y1y1z
12UV1
,--t-
-1-1-1
1U1xUU
T:U20
1U1199
11y1y11
y^91-Q
1--1-
uUP0,
0U1U-
T1U10
U9T,1
1x11-T
Pxx,(
P(0,P(
112x1y1
HlHl$m$l$
x0xT1t
RLQuUI
L-u,q-u,m-
$$%$$
21U212
U0Q1(1,1-)
TU0U,
0U1,U-U\],
x9y0y
Ux1y\UMxU,
UUtU-T
\U9T9
UU1t1
Uy,yTyUxUy
Pp,pP
UTy01
,,LPP(tpT
\1\U9
(0|,L
VUU-U
P0x0x
P-yxU-1
UQPyyQ1
y0yUxUUTy-
L,UTUTUUT$
u(P0M,M
,--$-UPTTP
0P,xTP
PLPQT
U0U1T]
Tu),Q0
xUx]U
TyPy0u0t
0-yQL,-x,
P,(,,P,
T,T\Tx
00T0x0T
y1x,PLx,x
(,xTt
TTQPTPTP
T0,x,PL
UyUx1-U-0
1-L]yUQU
Tx]ty
U,1y,Q
y-x1x
Ux1UxUT
yy,-Ty\y
-0--,-
P-y4T-
,)Tx\T
L0x,T
T0PTP
tPP00
PUy$T
2y1y0x
,,011
1\]]0
y11UTU1U
u$-Qyz
]-11-
T,U,y
0]0\]]
-T,y,
U1-11U]
10UY0
HPt-L$,
LyxUtTt)P
0xP(T0|
TU,-Q-u
PP(u,(
(PU,UPM,P,
]yT19x
Qu1H-Q
-MTQ%P-
y,y,QPU
QTQPMt1x-(
1)U-,1U
Pu1xU
I0-PQ-qU
,UltQ
0u$Q-t
--p1-
,11-1QM
1Q-1)
-UU\U1X1
510UT
P1T1|-
UUT1UP
U1)1]
)011-$
Q1-11-
]T]]0P
9xUTTy]x
]y0U0yTUUy
yUT10
0U-P1
-1--Y1
UTYUUyUQ,L
$$,L-
PM1TP
TPTP,q
QQ(y-T-U
Q0P1P1-
M9V9$11
(1yU1U
U11U11
U11y1Q1Q11
PPMTu0
(,Lyy
]QUyy]y
UUz2y
y1y1y
LU,q0
t1PUT
yQyQy
zQQUy
x1U1y1
U1U]y
0UU11
Q(-TQT-U
Uy1Yy
yUV]z
1zYyYU1
Uy1y1y
U1]z]y
-y1y-
u(PQP
UytQu
(-LQU
-H$pH
-1UY1YU
1U110
YyYTUUYU1y
-Y1y1YUY1U
y11UU10U
1PL,1
-,q0t
010X1
10UTx10
1-1-11
u(y-t
11-4y
U1y]Uy
y1zuVQ
-Tt-PL
),P,L,
(QTy,-
VUUyuMm
TQQu(1y
,p,PPx(
1y-y-
1UTy1y0y
x9x1y
TxyxTx
p342-1
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 1: Development (page 1)
ftsTitle
The ancient Greek trireme marked the ultimate development of the Mediterranean galley, its three tiers of rowers giving it unsurpassed speed.
Ships (1 of 6)
1. Development
The basic design of ships has changed little over the past 3500 years. The Egyptians, Phoenicians and Greeks in the Mediterranean, and the Chinese in the East, built large fleets for trade, exploration and war; and from these emerged the ancestors of the Arab dhow, the Chinese junk and other types of craft.
The differing needs of commerce and warfare soon created two distinct types of ship. Warships were designed with speed and maneuverability in mind, and thus tended to have long, narrow hulls and to be oar-powered. The oared fighting ship, or galley, with its lateen-rigged (i.e. triangular) sail was supreme in Mediterranean sea warfare from the time of the Phoenicians. Some had a single bank of oars but others two or three (these were known as biremes and triemes respectively). The Phoenicians generally used two banks, but the Greeks, and later the Romans, favored three. Medieval galleys had single banks of long oars with wide outriggers. For trading vessels, on the other hand, carrying capacity was the major consideration, so they were generally shorter and broader than warships, and relied mainly on sails.
The longship and the cog
Sometime in the 7th or 8th centuries AD a new form of construction appeared in Northern Europe - the Viking longship. The bow and stern were formed nearly at right angles to the keel, and the hull planking tapered to form distinct stem- and stern pieces. Although relying upon oars for fighting, the longship had a much larger and efficient sail than the galley, the longer keel and pointed ends providing a more stable and efficient sailing form. The longship was an awesome raiding craft, faster and more seaworthy than the Mediterranean galley, and enabled the Vikings to sail as far as North America. Longships based on the Viking design were used in the Norman invasion of England in 1066.
The rise of the Hanseatic League (an association of northern German trading towns) in the 14th century led to the development of the Hansa cog. This broad, sturdy vessel, typically about 30 m (100 ft) long, had a good cargo-carrying capacity. It had a square sail on a single mast and built-up 'castles' at the stem and stern.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
]xUTy\xU
]y\y]x]xUx
UxUxUx]
\y]x]
yTx]y]xUx0
yTyTx0x0P0
x,P0P,P(T,
P0,L,(P,(P
,P(T,(T,P0
xTTUxTyU
xUyTyTy\y
UTUT0
0y1T00x0TT
Ux]TUy
UTUx0
UT10U00TTU
]y0yUT0y\
y0x]UTy]P0
UT1x101
TUT11
11T1TU01xU
-11--
T-10U
0-10U0U01P
1T-Q1P1P1P
0U1yy0y1U0
1,U,-,
0P1,U
U01,U0U011
T10U0U1T1U
0U0U1-0-1T
101P1U011T
101Q0UU0U0
U-1T1U1T1T
011T10U
110-1--0-]
U0]UT
-0-Q0-0110
-,U1U0U1
U-0-1
T1U0-0
U0U-11U1
1U0U1U1U
U011-0
U0U011U1U1
-0--T
U1UY11U0U1
y]y9y]UU
U1T1U
1T1-0U0U1T
110U]
11UUY
]U]11U1
T1U0U
T11T1T1T1U
1U0U0-
]U0U1U0U01
10-1U
y]0]y]y
11U0U1U0-1
-1T10-011-
0-1T1U0
]y1T1
-0110U11-0
--011-,U]
-,1T1U0U
U10110U110
0U1U1T
0101U--0Q0
]U01Y1101
U0U81U01U0
11-01U0-1T
10T11--0
UY1TU
01UUYP
110-0U11T1
U1U]UU
TU0U]
T1T11U01U1
0U1T110U1U
U010U
U9y]Y
UY1T1U
1U101T11
1T11-
11T1U]U\
y0U\U]y11
U1T1U11T1-
010y1U1
1Uy]UU
10U-T
0U11U0U01T
1U1101-0-1
UT1U0Q
11U-0U
0U0U0-1
-110-T1]
]UY]U1
10U01
-0U0-,U
Y1y101y1
T1T1]UT
U1U1011-01
1U]U0y1
TU0U1
01U11U0
U101T1T1U1
U1U0-0
U0U115U
1U01T11
]Y1UY1
y1T1U
,10-,U
]UTU0y
101yy]
]y9U0
T11,1
10U1U]]U9y
]YUU0
1U1U01
1U0U1U11UU
TUU01UU]
0U1T1T
U11]1
UU010
91y91
1y]UUT1T10
1U0-0
yU0y1
y9y1T
1T1T]
]]11U
U1T1U1P10U
]U101YTU1U
0]UU1U11
-0UUy
01T11y10U
U]UYU
T1T11-0U
U1T110U,1T
1y11U1T1-0
U0-1U
1,--0U0
UU0U0U
0110U1T
T11U1T
U11U110
1y1y]y1T11
0y1U1y
TU1UT
y0y]U01
y9U8yU]UY1
YUU0U01U01
T1011011
Y1TU]U]
U11U11T1Y]
-,-0U
U01T1-11
01U0U11T
1-0-,U
T11-1y]
1U0--1Y
U1U0U11T
\U1U11T
T1U11T
]U1y0UU0U1
x--1011
T19y1
]y]yUU
UT11x
]1U1U1U11U
0UT11U0U
-0Q01-11U
0y9T11T110
U0U1T10-1-
-010U1U1UT
U0U01U
0U1T1
U1U1|11U0Q
0U11Y10U10
1T1T1U01U
y1Y1T1
11T1U
U1T1UyUyy1
y1UT1TU
T1y]UU]
01T110
y9y1U0
Y01U0
1U]U0U]y]
0U1UY0U10-
1U1y11T
U1--T
101-1--,U
Y0U1yY1U01
1P1-1
1-1-010U0
U11U01U0U1
Q0U1T11T
y1U01
U11y1y]
011T1
}y01TU
11T1T11
1T11]y
U9y9x]
y]U11T1
U01U0U11T1
Y]UTU]
U\11U0
1U10U
1011-1
01UY1T10
0-1-0-1,
UU1T10U
10-0U
y]y9y
1T11U0-1T
1T1U1U1-0-
101U0-0-11
1-U0U
11U1T]
U010U1U-01
1U1y9T1y1
1T1U]
U]]y]
10U1U
0U01T
]yUU9y]
y]U1U\
]U0U110
UU0U1U1
1-0U1101
U0U0U1U
11y9U
T1T1-0U
U1-0U
y1T1]y]
1U11U11T1T
U1U10U1x
1y9U1U-
-0-1U0U1T
U011-Q
y]U1y1U]
U5T1T1
U011-1T
U11,U
1]UU1y]
0U110U1U]]
--01U-1
T101U11
T1UY1
U11U01T1U0
]y1U]U1
1T1y10-01
--T10U01
101U1T
1T1U1-01T1
0U110-0-
U01U1T1U11
U1UU4
T10-1T
0U110
1U0U1x
U]UXUU
]1T1UUT1T1
U0U0]
9UU1T
1U010
]y1U0U11U1
U0U1U1
1T11-01
T1T10U10U1
UU01U0U
-0U0U
]y1U01y]y1
]1T1T1
U0U0-1U0
y0U10U1
-,U0U011yY
UU110U10U
P1-1-1
-1-0-U
01U1x
T11U0
110U0
1T]U1U
1y1UTU1TU]
1y1U011T
01U1U11Y1U
Y1y11
]y]y9x
101U]
1T1U]U101
U]U01U
101]1
T1Uy\
1-011-
-1Y]y]
9yYy9y1U]T
1Yy0y1y]1X
T1U-0
]T1U110U0
U1U]UU]Uy]
1,U1T
11U11T1T1T
y1U01U1T1
T1y]y9
1U0U1U0Uy
11T11y1
]1T9T1
9y9y0
T11x]
T1U1U11T
0U0U011U]U
0U0U01-1
0-01U0y]
1yUU]
1Yy0U]
yU]UU01-1T
-U01T1
y1U0-
0U]y1y9y1Y
11-0U0-
1-1--,
1-101
]y]y]y]U]
1T10-U0U1y
0-1011,
Y0U0U
U11T1U10y]
y9y10
U11T9UU]
y1\1y1U
T1U1U1y]
011T11T-1
Y]]y]yx1U\
U11U0-
}1TU\UY
U1-0U
-1Y10y1
-,U011UU
]y1U0-0-
--,-y]
1y]T10
1U1T1Y1T10
T11U1T1T
U11T10y0
]]y1]]
T10y9U
1T]U1
1xU]UYy
]y0U1101
UY1T1U0
10U0UY
U0U0-
1-0U1U0
1Yy0U1y1]
]U110
1011T1P1-1
11y9y
1U0U1
U11Q0
11U1T
-0U0U]T1
yYy1U0
T1-1T
T10U0UUT1U
10U-U]
11U1U0
1U1y9UUT]y
U01T10
1T1-1
]U1U0U
T1Y01Y1T1U
1T10U
UU1T11U
1U]U0
8y1Y1
y0]1T1
U1U1U10U
1y1T]y
UY1T1]
11T1-0-
--T1U
11T1T11Y1y
0y11]y1U]
0U01Q0U-
,1T1y]
1U11U
U10U1
U1UUy
1U11T1U
10U0U]
1Q1U1y]
y1U1T11U0U
1y1y1y]]
]U910U1
1-1T1-0U11
1U1T1U
UU011
0U10U
1T1U0
y10U11x
1T1Y1y1U
101101U
T1U01
]y01Yy1-0-
y1U10U0y1
U\yy]
UU1U0U0
1UU1U
]yU0U1T11
U1yYU
]U4U101
U10U1
U110U]
1y]U]
}9y1T
TU0U]
YU]UU0
T-0UU
1UUT1Y1
10U01\
]U10U90U1
101U0ye
Y1U91U
T]y11
1y10U1U
5U01U
1U1T1T
1T-0U
Q1-0-
]y-0101U01
]y1x1
1U01U
y0y1T
1Y1U0
1T1U0]
1U1UU1U
11011-T
1U1U1U11T
1U1y9y91x1
Y]U1]UUT
01U0U1T
1T]U1
U1T]y9
-0T-0
T1T1UU1U1T
11U011U1
1T1U]yY
0U,1T
]U1y9
1UT10U1T
101T1U1U0
U11y]
U4U1T1,11T
xU0U1TUU
U9U1]U]
1T11T1U0
-10110UYy1
y1U5U11U0-
0U-1-0-
1T11y9U
U11U11y1U0
U0U1y
UUY1x
11T1U1T-0U
101-U
1T1U0
UT1U0U1T1
U0U0U1
T11P1
U0-1P1T1-
1-0-1T1y1
\1UU]Y11U1
10U10-
y1-,1U0
01T1-T1U0U
1y10U1U101
1--T1U0
1T1T1U10
U0U11
1x]y1
11U0U1-0U0
]U011Y
UU1T1T1
U1T11U0U1T
1U1U1
]y1x]
y9y8U0y]y9
U1-0U
U-0-1-0
1011T
U110U1U1
10-10y]
YUT1U0
1101T1UY1
T110U011T
1y]U]
1y1TU]U
1U011
,1-1U11U1T
y09y1
1U0-1
]1TUU
01T1T110U1
U1y1TU]TU]
yY10U1011
T11-1T
]y10U11U01
0U1U1
y]Uy1TU1
1-0Q1
UU]y9
UT1T]
1U1U110U1]
1yY]Y]y
0101T1
U11U-0
U01T1101U1
\UUT]y9y]]
01y0U0
1U1U0-1T
1-1U1T1
1T1-0y]
UyUU]y
U01U0
-1T1U
UT]U9y1U1
YUUT11U
101011T11,
0-1-0
UU1UU0U
1Y1U0Q
01U101
U1UU]U]UU]
1U0U0y]
]U10U0U
U\1U0-1U10
U1U010-1-1
-0U]U]
]UU]UU9y
11U1}y]U1
]U0U01U1U1
1-10-1T1U0
U01y10U1-,
y01T110
}U0-U01
Uy]UT
yy101T1U1
1T1U11T
1T10U]
9U-0U1
]y10U0
]y1UTU
T101U1,
1x1yU
UU1U01U11
1]U0U0U
1U-0-
y]y1U01y]
y9y1]
y]Y]x
]y1yU1T
1U1101
0U10-1T110
01U1,U1
1T10-0
]yy1Y0U1
1T11U10y
1UU01
}y11y]y]
y1Y1U
0U10U11U10
1U11T01U1U
1T1yU1T
1T1U1901T-
0U01U0
0y]UUy]
1U1T1
1y1-1T
10y]U0U1TU
U01U0U1U
10y1Y1UU01
1-T1T11
U1-T11U
y10U11T11U
TU1U1x
11U1y
010U11TU
1y10U
U11U0U
]y0U1
UU]y11y1
U1UU101T
T1-0-1-0U]
1T1-U1x1U1
0y1U1T1U1T
U01U1U11U0
T1T11U
U0-1U0
y1T1y
1U0UUT1
1x1y10
U11T10
y1U1T
T11U10U01
1U101U01U
Y0U1T]U09y
1U110U11T1
1U01U]
]y9y]
0U11yUx1
T110U01U0
10U1T11
]y9y1
1y10U
Y9y0U1U1y1
x1UT1
T10U1P1
1TU10U0y
Y10U0U1
0U10U1U01U
011U]
]y]UU]]
]]1UT
U010U11U
10-1-01Q
0--T1x]U
U]1Y]
UT]U01UY1T
1U1-0--T-
U011U0
]UUy0
y]y1T11x
1y]y1T1
]y]1y0y1--
0U,1T
1T11U01
y]]TU0
]y91T
10U0U0U110
1U10U1
1T1T1
T11U1T
y1y11U
UU1U01
11T11
]U11y1
TU]y]U
1Q0U-]
y0U1U
110y9T11-0
U1T1U]
yYy9y1
]y9yT11
0U1U1U0UT1
]Y1U0U0
]U101U
UT1U0U-U
]U]U0
]]U]U0U]
]y0U1
1y11T
U01Yy]
1UUY]UUT
]UT10-1
1T1UY
]y1y8U11
1T1T11T]U
U01U01,
]y0UUT]
1x1UU
T101U
1U01y1
U]UY1U0
]10U11T1
U0]1T1T1U1
8y0U1U01U1
U0U1-
0-0--
UU]Y1
]U01-10-
]y]UUY
1T10y
UT]Q0y1UxU
U-1UTU0U1T
1UU0yy1
UU1y]
]y9Y1
1]UU1YU
110U10-0U-
11U]1
1x1T1T
11x1U0
UUxU]T1y1Y
1\y]U
1U]T1
]U010U1T
)-1-1-01U
11U1T
11U01
1-0-10
y9y9y1x
]y]UU1YU
U01UU
U]xUU01x]
]y110Uy
UT-1-,1
U-0-1T1
UU0U01
10U-0U1T
1-]1T
10y010
1Y10y
11T1T
1-1-U
UU]y1
]T1U1}]UY
T110U
y]U1y1U0
}UT1x]y
01T-11U
]U0U0
1T11T1
1y1U0U0U0
y1T1U
T1U1T1T11y
]y\y0
1U0Y0
0UU11--
\y]y]
,]]y9U1
1T1T1x
]U11x
]U0U1
1U01T0
UyyYU\
1x]y9x
0U0-UU]
UU101
YU0yY
U1U0U0
0--,]
10-,-0-,M1
Y11T]
--10-1
y]U0y
T-T1,
,-U-1P
]y]UU
1T1y1
1Y0U,1-
]U]UU
,U0Q-,
-T--,
1,1Q-1P0,
-U,U0,
P,),P
1-0U1]
y]UTU1
-,U1T-L
-UT-,U(1UT
P1--U,
1yTQ(Q0U
QPU,M0
,T-1T
TxUP-T
1UTU0U0
U10U01-1U0
(Q1x-
Q0x1,-
,Q]L,U
,L1-P10
,1U,1,),1U
(,-1PU
yTU-1
U,QTyT10-1
-x10-x
10U-,
,1-P]UP0yx
UTTP,
UT1U0
Yy1U0U
-011-0
-0Q1x
U--0y1-
Q1UTQ(-UT-
0yUP)0Q1x-
1P1,Q
M0yy,U-U
,-Ux11--x1
Q0Q0-TUx-0
Q1PUx1P11P
y0Q1,U
Q,1P-x
0U,yyx1P
xUT--
,P(T,
1T1T1U
T1-1-0U0U
-,(UU
(-,yT,
,Uy1P
1P),UTQ
1y0-T
1,-1x-1PM,
1TQxUP
y-U,U,yy,U
,TUy010Q-U
y1QT-0-x1P
11T-1xUT1-
-10QT
U,1,-Ty0-1
T-TUx-U0-,
-U01U
P,yxQ
QUT,U0,
y01-UT1
y]y9y
UTU,,--TQ
P1P,-UUT
1Q1,U
,1x-T-1
Uy,U-,UTQ
1xUT-U,
TQ0U-0yx1
01,MUUy1Q0
Q-TUU,U,U-
y-T1P)yU,U
1T-yUU,U,
yTU-0Q
-0QU,
UUP1-0Q
1x1Q0Q)T-P
yUT1P1
y-1--,
y(-1,
Q0-U,1
Q0UUP1U0yU
,yxUU1P
PU,U-P1y
U,U,U0-PU
1x--0Q0yT
-1,UTU01U,
UUx-1
U,1P]y0Q1U
T-0-T
Ux1Q0
x1Q0-Q
Ty0Q01PUx-
0Q0Q-TQ0U1
xQ0Q-
(-1yx1-T
UTy-0U-0
QUT-0
TU0u,
QUx-T
P),yT
yP1P)
P,Q1,U
Ux1yT1U0Q1
T1yTy1x1Q(
(yTU,U
,U1,U
y0-0Q
yUU-T-P1
01x1T
-Ty-0U,-y
-0U1U,x
UQ01Q0
y1U,1
Q0-L1TU
T-1-xy0Q-0
-,yy0-
x,M1P
y]y]UT
1T1T1
1U]y1
TQ-0P1,1y0
y10UU,UUxU
yTyTyUxUxy
QUxUx
UUxU,
,11,1
y1P1Q
P1T-,
UTy0Q0U,
UT--,
U0QU,1
y0UTQT
01Q,yUP1Q1
-,1y0Q1P(-
10Q0y1P1T-
UU,0U,-U
x,U,1P1
P),U1P1
-xyQ0-
PU1,U
-xyTU,
9y]U0
--M,1x-
L--,T-T-,-
T-1P10y1U,
U,yUxyTy
xUU0Q0QTP)
y,y1P1P1(
yxUQP
x-U,M
10Q)PUx-1
,L]x-T-
U,U-P
UTy0-T
t1T-P
yx1U,1y
0Q1,U,P1x-
1T--1P)Q1
yTU,U0Q
yTU,-
1Q(U,
y-T-L1-
UTP1P)U
1,1Q(-
1U,U,
UTU1,U
U]UT1U0
(U1T1-T-
P)TUxyUxyT
Py--P]yUx
QUTU,
y1T-PUy
x1Q,y
UyTy1Q1
y0UTU-
yxUTUQ0
0--UT-T-0
,1y0Q1
PU0Q0U-
-xUQ0U-0
UQ0-0-
,-x10Q
yTy,U-
,1u01P
]y]y]
]U]yY
)U,-,
T-T1x1xU
UP1PU
UxUP,
PUU,yUt1y1
Uxy10P
,y0U,
UTU,UTQ-10
Q-U1Q0Q-T1
,0Q1,QTQ10
1P1-0Q
(yUP1U-T-P
UT-T-M0
1P1P1P
PUy-y
y,U0-
--,U-yTyy1
-P,yy
UxUx-T
xUy,y
UxUPU
UTU-P
xy1-Ty0U,U
,UTQ0-
T-U,-0y1P1
Q0yUTUUTU,
Q]P1PUT1
UU,1Q0
,1P-1
,1U,L1
y,y01P
1P-0U0U0yT
0yUy1P
uTyy-
1yTU,
Uxy1P
1,PUQ
0U,-U
,11P)U0-0U
1,1U,)yx1y
yTQTy0
xy,U-x1
TQ0y1P
Ty,01U,
UPUTyUP
1T1y]U0
,U0101Q
x1P1T
,y-0U,U-T,
PUP1y0
Ux1TUP,
UT1y1x
)x-T-1
U-0y-PyTQ1
y-T-U0
-T-T-
x,uLt
yTyy-
,y,U,)0U1P
1U,M1xUUx-
uyTyx1,
Q11TUPQTy,
yUy0Q
x-0y,
,UTU0,(
-T1-L1,
),M0-P
Q0y0Q
,UUP)
UyTPU
1x1-U,UTQ1
TU,y1
x-x1y-P
-T-T-
)P1T-0
]1y1y1T]
PUyTyUx-
0P1,PUPU
xUxUU,
xUPUx-M0
TUtUU,
yTyy1
UyxUy,,
11,Q1,
,-(Q1
]y]U1U
TPUxUUP1-T
UxUy,T
1UTQ0
UyUxy-,
y1x1U
UP1TU,
U]Uy]U
\Uy]U9y8U]
1Q0y01P1y
1xUyx-,U0
TyTU-x
yTU-0
1xyTQ0
y-TQU,P
-T-1P
]xUxUU,-,M
TUUT1U-
0]1x1y
0,yTyy0
yTU,1P1,)P
uUT,y
0yTU-P
,UTU1
1T1,)
yUxUy
M0QTy
]y]TUU
1y11yTP-)
UTyUxUQ0y
Q,M,U
xUyxUT,
P11P1P(
1xUPP
UxUT,P)
y0U,-,yTU
y0y-P1
UP,-,11P1,
yxUy,
U,1PUU
P1,U1
P1xUx-UTU
]UTU]TU
01y1y
U,U0Q0-
Q1P1P)P
y,UPy
UyTyTQT-
UUP1y,0Q
Ty0Q(-UTU
,)U,L-x
TQ1TP
x,1T1
,1U01
T,yUxU
y0Q0U,
]y,y]PU
T-yxUP1x
UU,U-T1-1,
U,1Q1Ut
yy,U,
-1PUy-(t
0U,y,T
Tyy0yTy1P
),T1P
1P1P1P(
Ly0-T1x
(Ux1P1T
(y,y1
y,T-)
,y-TQx
UP1P(U,UU
u0QTUUyUQT
u0y,L
yUyTU-T
y]y]0
1,y1y0
,0QUU
U-0UUx
]U,yyT
yTyyxUxyx
y,y0UPTUTU
yy1x-xUxTy
y,0yxTyxP,
,U0u0PUPU
x,U1P,,
Uxy0Q,1
U]UU1
,,(P,P,(,p
u,(1,Q,U,-
,Q,0,x-yTQ
PyPyTQ,1tU
tUyx,-,
-U0-U01P
(U-TU
yTQUT
,UTP1P
y,y0Q(
Ux--,1
TyUT-U
Ty1y,
xUU,,1
yU]TU]]
PPT-LU
P(y1P
TyP1x1yT
UP1T1,
yPU-P]y9U\
UP1P1
tUP1t
1,1T,
UTUT-1
10UU-T-
00y0U,U,y
Ty,(U
Uxyy-x
TUT101T1UU
]L1T1T1
1P1UT1T1x
U-TUx1Q
y1P)T
P-0,M
xUxUT1
yYU]UT
TU-)P--L1P
1U0y11UU01
1T,1Q0
TyxUyx-P
U1T1x1
,U,xy
t),-0U,
),U0-(P)-,
,-,PL1,
xUU-(
U0U0y0Q1UT
yUU1x
-0-U0y
TUTyPU
-P1P1
P-P1P-L1-T
,UTyUxUy
UU0Q1
P1,1P1
-0Q,1P1P,U
-P1,U-10Q
-L--,-0QTy
xy,yy
,1-Q1T1P1y
0y0UTU1,1,
0-1P,Q,P-T
1P(1P1Q
UUx1T1T-
1y1x1T]
UT1U0U1T,U
T10U1TUT1x
UTyP,
UP-T1yT
UxUy0Q1P-
P-1P1,0
]y]yTU
01,Q,-,U01
U011T1P0
Q01y10UT
y0y1,
Q,UTyU
UyTyUy0
Q,1,)
UT1TUy
UU0U0U0
y-,U,U,M,
y0Uy,
Uxyy0P
yx1Q0QP
]1UTU\yx
UxUy0y-
TUx-T
yTyTy
Uxy,-L1
(P-(U
QUy1P
$10-(y
,(Q0,
,-t1P
ty0-,
,y0PU
x1T1Q0yYU
TxUxUxT-T
(,1L,(P(,(
TPT,L0P(0P
,LTP(T,0P0
,x0-x11
)T1U,
)0U,U
,Q0-y
(U-,1P
UyUxU
TUTUQ1T1U]
-Q,P-
P-,,Q,,Q,
P-0PT
UyTyyT,
Uy1xyy1T-T
1Q0U,U0y1x
1xy1Ty1U0y
y0yTTUx1x1
xUU0yx1xyU
p,yPx
,yTyQ
TyyxUx
TyUxUyUxUU
TyQTy1,P
Ux1xUyTyU
xUxUtUxUxT
uTtTTQxTy
TxUyx1
,y,0uxP1,Q
TPy,L,
TP-tyy
LTyxTtTU
UtPyxTyPTP
y,t,PL
y1TyUx]
xUxyTyx
Uxy0yT1Ty0
yTy0yx1xy0
UTy0UT
-0yUyTyT
TxPyUtQxPy
TxPpU
TuTtPtLyT
tPtPt
PyUtUtPtLt
TtPtPtUt(t
LtPt(tPt,t
PpPtL
PpPxPt
xUxu,x,t
x,tPTPxxyT
U-0U,U,1Q1
P(1Q01U,(1
P1,1P)1P(-
,U-(-
Q-,--P
P,-x,tUtTy
UP-0u,QTx-
\L1UT
Q0-1P1UP
TyUxUx
,tTQ,
Ut0t0t0u,T
,LPP1P-T-T
-x,T-T-,P(
P,L,Q,(
M,UQx
y,U0-0U1x
U0-1yx
]Q0U1TUP1
PUx,x
10U1,
(UUP1U10-
Q0Q1x
P1P1T11x
(yTyT
$10U-T
x,LUy
,UTyy
1Q011T-1PU
UP,L,
PtPxPxt
t,p,t,tP,t
(P,u,tTxPx
UuTyTyTyU
(1U0-U
0U1T1x
1x1-U,
UyTyUyTyUx
UyUxU
TyUxUyTy
yUT1x
-U01U0Q,
0U10Q
TyUxyU
UP1Ty
TQ0PU
U,)1T-y
yUxyTU
10U,,
yT-0Q1T-xT
xPxPxPtTtL
tPpPtPtPtP
tLxPtPt(tP
tTtPpPtPtL
tPtLtT
-0Q1y
UP10Q-T1Q
xUyTyyTyy
UxyUyyT
x-y,Q,-Q
x1P1y0u0,
0U0-UTU
-T-T-P
QTU1xU
x1T10P
xyTyxUUT
yUxyTyTyy0
yxUyx1QTU1
x1yxUxyTy0
UU0U11T
UQTU,
U0-U1,]
yTyxUxy
y]xyxUyxUy
xyUxyy
y1Q1x1-T-1
yTU-T
1xUQ01PU
UyUxUy
Ty0y01yUTU
xUx]yTyU
yTyUx]x
1Ty01
P10QU
xUyTy1xyTx
UxUyTy
xUxUyPUTPU
PTTUxTU01U
10-T10Q
yTyPy0uTyT
yPyPyU
TyTxUxTy
yTyUxUyTU,
1x1,T
TyPyxUx
yUTUyTyxUy
]P-x1-T-T
TQUT-TUU0
-01U01y0
1TUT1U1
Ty1P1Q0U1
P,L,,(
P,(,P(,L,(
PL,P(,L-(P
T,Q1P
PUyx-UT
0U1x1U0
-0UUT1T
]-1,,U10UU
uU0Q)1yT
u1T-T
\MUT1UT
1T1T1Q
x,U0U
,1P101P,
x1U0U
PUTUx
UUTyT
1y1x1
-T1U-L,
x1P-y
x11U0U1x
y10U0y,
]P1x1T11PT
PUyTy-UU
1P1-,
U0UU0u
0yTy0
y10y0y
1T-TU
y,1P1L
\UTUU0U0-
0UUxU
1T1y-
,1T-1
1P1PP
)T1T1U1T
u0UT1xUU
01T101P,P(
y,U-x
U,P0PU
x10-y
U01T1-
Q0Q1T-T1,
1xU0Q,--T-
-T,-TU
TU10U0U
x1U1x,
xQ10Q1,
U11T,
P1Q01P
(1,UUy0Q)T
1P11,1,L0-
,LUxPyP
UxTyPyTu
TyxUU0y,U
QxUtUtUtLx
txuTQ1xUP1
x1t1Q
11,U1
T1,1P)x
1Q0-Q
Q,-xU
,Q0UT
T1P1U,U
1-1-1
1PUTU10
UP1x1P1
y-T1T,
L1P1T-0Q1T
(U0-U0
,-1TUyx
-1T-0-1P
y,UQT1t1T1
x1y,y1x
UTQUU,y
UQ0U-0Q
1T-0QT
0Q0Q0Q
]P1xU
TU0-T-0U-P
y-Y-0
Ux-y1P1-y
-x1QT1-x-
T1,UTU
Q01Q0Q10-1
,0Q10-LT
U01Q,(U,
T-0UUQ0Q
U010U01x1x
PUUPUT1u0
y01yUTU,
TQ0U0
UP10U0U,U0
,M1P-U
-1T1P
,1U01T11
T1-T,
(P,(,M,L
-L1T-
xQM0U
-T1U1t1T-1
P1,1y-
P1,U-U,
Q,Q,M,y1
0Q0-U0
(U0-U,1P
-1-11U9
UyTyyPyx
yPyxu
LtPxPt
PP(-(P1,LQ
TUP(QTP
P1xUyTUTQT
yUxUy\y1x,
1,U,-
1U,1U1,PU
11U1U
y1yTyTyU
-T1Q11T
1Q01U,1T1,
y0y0yT
0U,10U,QU
T-0U,1U-
1-01y
1UTUyyU
U1Q0Q0-0
-0U-0U,L
1U1U1x1x1
-Ty0y0yU
-T1Q0U-,
11U1-
U11-11-1y
T1x1xUU,
,yUy0y
UP-(x
Ty1TU1P,
x1U0yTyUxU
UQ1T1
-T-LT
T1)U,UUt0
TU-UTUU0U-
Q0UTUUxU
xUT]y
]ty01
1yUyTy
y-T101T1Q
Uy\y1x-
Ty]P1Ty
U,U0-T1t
]U,U1U1
T1U,1-1T1
Ty0-T
y,1x10-
,U1T-T-(
ytQxx
-10U1,U
,U0U-0U
1P1011PP
TQTU-0U,y
u-0Q1P
U,1QT
,U1TUP
UTyQx
y0yUT-1U0-
TUUTUyyT
y1,U01P
uUuyQ
0yxUTUx1
P,y0Q(y
y,-T-
,yxUx
)xyyU
x,0Q(
TyxUyxy
UyTyUx
xQ1QU
TyxUyxUyT
,U-TU
UyxUy
xyTyT
1T1Ux-x
yTyUxyP
y,-0-0Q
TyUxyUx
yUxyP
M-P1U1T
yy0QU
y0U,T-T0U0
P1U0Q0U
TyUxyU
xy0yTUP
yUuUuUuTQU
UxyUxyUTUy
UxyUTUyT1y
xyUxyTUTyx
xyTyx1
yTy1TU
yxUyTUUxy-
xUyTyx1xUx
qPtMP1101,
UxUxy
0yTyy1
(U0Q0P
xUyyTy
1yyTP
UTy1xUTyt
)0U1,
Uxy0yxUxU
,U01-
xyUyyTy
Q0Q0Q
yUxy0yyTyP
,11U,
UxUxUx1x
-T1P)
UUx1y1xUQ
y,1T1
QxUTUTyy,
-TyUx
UT1-x
TyUxyUT1
y0-1,P
PUyTU
,1T1Q0
1xTUUTUP
1P1T,
,y1yy
,1T11
-yTUTyQ
-T1U,x
,UTyxUUT
-T10P(
TPy0yUT,
T-0QT
U,-PU
Q1Ty0y,
Tyx-1,UUy
y0Q]P]
-0Q0UQT,
-T-0Q(t
0y0U0
UP,P,(
,1U01UUt
,,P1yTy
xu1PUU
0Q,PT
yyxUU
011T1P,-xU
T1T,0
,UP1yT
y,Q,y
UxT1,
Q1tT-x11T1
Q0U,U,)x
1P1x1xU
TU1xUTUT1
-T--)U
,1T1T11-x-
T,LTtT
TQ0U1P1
-U,P)T-QUU
t(yTy
,,Q0UU
UUTUT
TUTUUTyT
y0-x1x1y
,Uy0y
]11UTU,1Q
Ty0x,
-1T-1
1yy]U,Q0U
TU-xT
-1U1-1
U11]]
xUxTxTT,P,
L,P(P,L,T,
TxUx]
UxUxUxUxU
p342-2
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 1: Development (page 2)
ftsTitle
The carrack of the 15th century, similar to Columbus's ship the Santa Maria. Columbus also sailed with the caravels Pinta and Nina. Caravels are even smaller ships with lateen rigs (i.e. triangular sails).
Ships (2 of 6)
1. Development
The evolution of the sailing ship
Early ships were maneuvered by means of a steering oar or paddle on the quarter (i.e. the side near the stern). Between 1200 and 1500 the gradual replacement of the steering oar by the wooden rudder brought about an enormous improvement in ship-handling. As ships grew larger the single mast gave way to two, three or even four masts. These features were incorporated in the Mediterranean carrack, which became the standard large ship in the 15th and 16th centuries.
A smaller version of the carrack, the caravel, was used along with the carrack by the Spanish and Portuguese to make their epic voyages of discovery. The caravel was easy to handle and large enough for ocean voyages, yet small enough to be rowed if there was no wind.
During the 15th century the warship also grew much bigger. Ships with a displacement of 250 tons at the beginning of the century had been replaced by ships of 1000 tons or more by 1500. Guns were used at sea in English men o' war from about 1340 and many of the Spanish galleys at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 carried heavy armaments. Gunports were provided in French and Spanish ships before 1500.
The huge expansion of the known world in the 16th century had a lasting effect on the ships of the trading nations. In Northern Europe the cog was expanded, while Spain and Portugal continued to develop the carrack. By the time England faced the Spanish Armada in 1588, galleons were the new model of fighting ship on both sides. But English shipwrights favored low-charged (low-sided) ships, while the Spanish clung to the high-charged carrack hull.
The restored ship of the line, HMS Victory. These ships of the late 18th and early 19th centuries evolved from the galleons of the 16th century, but had heavier timbers to allow bigger and more numerous guns to be carried.
Ships (3 of 6)
1. Development
During the 17th and 18th centuries the warship developed into a vessel of considerable strength, with massive double-planked sides. Under the rating system that evolved, only 1st to 3rd rates, mounting at least 64 heavy cannon, were designated as 'ships of the line'. Their purpose was to fight in the great sea battles. Smaller ships, the 4th, 5th and 6th rates, were for 'cruising' or independent operations; 5th and 6th rates were known as frigates and sloops respectively.
Merchantmen were built on broadly similar lines, but devoted internal space to cargo rather than weapons. Speed was not crucial, but small vessels adopted improvements to rigging to save manpower. Only the clipper used a finer form, sacrificing cargo space to speed in order to dominate trade in perishable commodities such as tea. Their 19th-century heyday was brief, however, as their huge spread of canvas required large crews.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
MyTt\uTuxt1tUxy
yTPyxUtTtUx1
P1QU,)t,
PxQxt
uTxyuTytTyP
U,$yPyUt(y-x,tq,
Q1U,Q
-1-Q1-
t1P)x
]tUxtMx-
,UPyTxtUQTyPx1
UtUtQxPy
Ttyt-yx-$
]-11Q1
y\y0U1lu
-xQxUtxPxUxP
yU]U1tPq
0P,xP,q
TuTtMTty
xPMPP-
0Q)TT1x,
Uxxt,U$
UQxUT-U1Q
tLll$Q
MTU-,
1U]Q]1
u%QTUP
Q(t1P1Q
$lll$
1-9Q1UT
U--)$u
1 y11-]Q-]UT
-1,]-
MPLP$,
Uy]Q1
,Q0-TQ,t
0y01TyU
P,yUy
Uy]yTx
U,PlQu
PUP)x1-0QU
0P-1TQ11H
(UTuy
y-UQTup
)xH,1q
y11Q-
y^)P-
0yUy1
\y0Q0
1,M1y,9L,
1u\yQ
yTUUt
91y1u
1t1P(-t
1TQLUy
]y1UQpU
9I\y,p
bPUTUx
T1y1y
]Q0H8Q
Ut1xU
by0-xQ0u]1L,
P,U,,
1PMP1x,0Q
,U-p-PLP$,
:V:z:
0tUxy,P
-xUyxT
uL1-x
,tQyPuPM,t,PPq-HHH
^:U:^
\Qx]py1yU
Ty0Uyx1
1TyQP,
Uy-uPM
:2^^:
]uTUt
0Q\Q,
($,$,M,H,y
$,P$TPQ
$u,UPx$,u1,yHQtPQ
,,$,$,$
H,-t-p$t0P-$
TtUP-
q0,y1
Mx-yxUt
Pt1$-
$H,HT$
$,$,$,$
UxUP$Qx
bQ1-1
1Q1QU
-LTtUt
-1y,u0-
y,1tUTHtU
PUHUP)HPQ($,$$
1Y$UQ
$$P$P,$
t]tUy
Q$P1,1P),U
),U--,q01Q11
]QPU,T
u]t-x
y-01$1P,M,
yQxUy
y0tP$Pq-$U
,L-$UtUP,-xH,Hu
P(,%P
$1P,Q
-x$Uy
-),,1(P
t1$1H
-1HUP,L
1tLP,Lt
-L,1$
$--PM,P(1
]H1T-(],U,
-]10y1
P-$,(
]$1,Q
$,$$$$
Pu(T,-L,Q0LP(-$
1-x-T,,--$1
1-$1P-M,1t
T-U,-
P1U,1P
PLP1P(
0$0H-pPHTPPQTy
]u]P-
$11-t)
x,-$tP
$,L-P1
xU1yu
,1$,M
L,L0t
$1$,--T,
$$Q(,P$,(
xPTltpPPTm
UP$H-
yTHTPPH0lPHxlPL
T1-PU
x$,$H$,HH,
-1-0-$-Q
PMUy-0
$Q0,M0H,L
TU,t$
$Q(P($
),Q(-U,U
Qpt]u0
11\H1
$$)$,
$,$,$
($,$$$,P$$,$-$
,L,,0PLx$
Q1T,-T,(
1,-,y
(u-,0U-0
Qy,p,H,
T-Q$0
0-L,$l
P(P(tT$xPpPU-
tU-pP
$$-yU0
x-L,HUU-19-0
u]P1,-x,-tq
$1QLu]PUy-x
TtUtU$-P,Q
tPL$t
,tH,$
$,-t-T$,
$$$PLHy0uMx
LtpH,$,
$,HP$
]-LT1$
H,$H$,H,H
$,t-P$
-H,t,
-xQu]
]y]-U9
Q0-0--
$1Qa-
t8q1x^-
:9-]-](
0yU$yP
TtQp1t
y-TUQ
u-x-U
$uPH-lPtl
-,y,M
1$Ut1y0y1UP
uTutUy9
1yTy\y
H,yP\L
Tpyt,
x$y-x
]y]UT
$,PQy--x$t(1PQ-
y,PTP(u-t
,yPyy
1T]UU
1x--U
$-yPMPy,-LHyx
x---,1yTtUUP1,Q1Px
-1U1UU1y1y
$-,$HPyUyTyUxT
0QYqTy0-
yUP-,y1
U,y]t
UP1yTy,U0Q
1P(Q($1,
0--t1
H-LtUPU,U,MTyt
HU1L1Q,y-0
$U1P(,M-,
U0,-Px
,M,P)
-1$1P
0Q,-P
$1Q,L
PH1Py,yQx1QT1QM1t0P
U1P1H-M0-
(,L,P$,
1P(PP
y,),Q,UY]
-Qy0U1T-L-x
$UP0y-
,Ppy$-T1
yy-TupUU,Ut-UPQ]$UU
q1t-x
P1P)0P$T
T-I,U$
T,(Q,$1$,u
]y$Q(,0$-
-P)H-
(11-,
TQ,($-
Q($TH,M
y0$,(
y1,PU
Px$UU
Q)-,p,H1,,
,P)-,L,P($
H-L,(t
$U,M,
1)UUx
P(1H1,UQ1,U
$P(,P
P(P$0Q0
--,$t
$,)P)$,)
$P(Q($
-$--(,L,
0H1P,
LUHTu\
H1$UP($T$
)0H-0
T,$-$$1$
P)P,M,$1$
,U-P(
1,$PP
Q0$,)$$
-LUU-U,
)uPHPtP
UxUyt]x
P(P($
H1H,$
,U$-$
H0,$QL
,$,MH
$0-$P
x$,U,
T-,Q(
,-yPy
xy1xP
x1T1x1P0Q1-0P-$
P,)P,$H,L$
$$,0$
$,)P,M0
u\UTU
TyyUTUT$QTQU$P-$,pQ,$P
HPP$$0
U$P$$
Ux,Hx
$,t$1P
,)$,H
1xU1Uy
,p-tPtLtPQxUt
$1$U,y,xPM1t-xt,p
L$,(P(P
($,L$T
Ux,L0$
91U1U8(1U1
TQ,y,U
U$$$$
$-$$,$
UH,$$,M
uTP-L
xHUy]
,t,L$QxP-tPL
0$-xP
]$,TP
$,$$,PHTl
$,P$P
P$,$Q
T,M0uU
y]x1y
(,,$P
,$1$0
$$0H$,
H$Q,)x-
$$$Uy
xP0u0Ux-y$xPL-t(t,pPUP
,U-HT
P(,$PL,P
$PyPL
H,)tUuTt
(P$U,$H$,t
$$m$H
)$MTP
y(yxQyt]PUxU
P,$,L$TPM,L
]P0,(t1H\
1$$-$
$P)P$$$
QL,TUUPpPt(ty-xQyx
1$$H,P($,H$H,$($
pTxPMPyPUPTx
,yx\QTQy]P)
0P(T,
$,HH,tPtPxy]t
(1)1,Q(P$-x-,qTy
yPQLx
]PLPT
1$Q1HU
yUT1uPM1P0$
$LQxyUx
,UU]U1
bU^bZ
P0$,P
PH,(PH$$,
1x,xl
]H$P,LHPL$HTPTP,H0P
-$1)$
,(HTP,(t(x
PP$HT$
t1U1M
$1$,$
$H$,H
,$,H,
$-P0Q
9u]Q]P(
:^Z^b
]UQ0-1t
-tH-lUtytyxU-T-1
:Y:^:
1P911
^Z^::
:^^Z^:
: :^
^^:^:^
>Z ::^:Z
^^:^:Z
::^Z^
^^:^?2^2:
^V:^^:
:^::^:
) :^:
^:^^^:
:^^^:b
fV:^:
)0P1u
^^^>::
2^:Zb
^:Z^:^:^
-$$,L.::
:^:^Z
::-:z:::
2^ :^:::
^^::V:
:Z^^^
^b^::
Z^:^::
::^::
:^:Z:
:^:^:
1_:^^^
:^^^^
: 2B^2^ ::^::^
$-Uy1
>V^^::b2^
:^^V>^::
:::^:
U :^::
>^:^:V::
>^^^^::
^:^2:
::^:::
:::^:
:^bV:_
:^:^bV^
:^2^:
12Ufz
::z-^
^:^^:
:::^:^:^^^:
:^^^:
$1y0$
,V:^1V
V^::^:
2bz:^
Y:^bQ
:Z^;^
:^:V^:^
:2^^:^2
^:byb
::^b^:::
bV>^:
::^::
:^ ^:^
:^:^2^:^::^2
^:^::^::
:^:^:^^^
::^:^:::_
:: 2^
:^:Z^:^:
:2b2^_^:^::
::V:^:
6Zb:Vf
^::^:::^^:
^::^:
::V:^^
V::^:
^^:^:^
:::^::^
:^?:^::V:^
: ^:^
1-:-:
9-:^:
2^2^:^:^V
-2-:-
U1U11
:^::^
:U:^c
-:^::
::Z^:
::_9:
>^2^:2^::
:^^^Z^:2
u ^ ^^:^:
) ^^:
_:^:^:
::^:Vb:^2
_:^:^V:^::V:
:2^:^:^
::b:^^
Z^:^_
:^::^
:::^:
:^:V^_:^2:^:
^ :V:
^:^:Vf^
^:::>
>2 ::
:^:V:
:^:^^
::^::^:^
::^::
^1 :V:
b^2^:
:2^::
^:^:^^:::^^^:
:^:::V^^^
:U1 b
:;^:Z
2:^:
:V:::^U
Z1Z::^
Vb^:^]
:^:^:
::^:Z^:
:^:2
:2b::^:^:
^:^:^:^
Qu0Q]
):^:Z
::^:Z :
:^:^1;
::^>V:^
2:^:^^^:::
,1UxPQ(
^: :V
-V: :
^::^:^
::^^:
^:V^^::^:::^:2
:^:^:V
:^:^:;V::^
U1t)t
^;1^^
:^::^
:^:^:
^:^^:
:21^2:^:
:^:;Y:^:
_V::^^_^
^:^::2
::^:^::
H1qTl
^ ^:b
:2 :^::
:^:^^^:
:^^:2
2b:^^^:^:
U ::^:::V:^
-:^::^^^:^2
^:^::::^^:^: ::^:1 2:
:^:::
xUT11U1
:^;:^:Z^
::^::
::^2:^b
V:^::
;^:^:V:
::^Z:
IPxuTu
:^::
^:2b2
:^:Z
:^::^::^:^
::^:V
b_Vb2b
:V:2:^^^:^Z
:^1^;^::^::^::
xuUP(
Q1:^:
V ^^:Z^:
Vb2f^::^
V911
1^:2>Z:^
^:V::^^
y:_:1
b:^::
:^^^^^:
:::^:^:^^^
::::^2::
:::^:
:^::^:^
T1T,P
QU ^:
;b2^:
>V::^:_
:c1^1
VB^::
::^:^
>2 :V
^:^:_:^:
:^:::^Z
:^Z :^:^:b:^::
:^:^:^bV>
^^^::
TUTP)
yxUx,
:^:^2
:^: :-
^^^:V^^::^::
V^^1:^
2^1U^
:2bZ:
2^^^:^:
1V :^:Y
^::^::
::::^:^:^:^:
:^:^^:^
:V:^::^Z^2
:^:::^2 ^
:>2^:^:^Z
::^::
:^b^:
::^b1)
U2::^
Z::Z:^:^:V:^
:Z^2:
^:^:^
::^::^1
]P(-yT
^:2>_:::
V:^Z :
2>^:^:
:V^:^:^:
^:^:^::
:^V::
PMT1QL
%b.:^:
~:>2b_
;:::^
^2^:^^:^
:V:^:
^::^:::
>2-:^:^2
:^:^:V
::^:_:
::::^:::^::
^:^::^
:^;^:^^^:^
^^:b2
Q>V:22
^2f2::b2>
uU-1U1
:^:^:::
^^^ ::^
::^::^2^
:Q 2:^:1
^^:^:
^::V:^2b::^1^:V:^:^>^:V:
V>V::_:^2
>Z:^:^^:
2b2 :V::^
:^2b2^:
: 2^:
:V>^^
zf:::
2:^:::^
:V:^::
^::^:::
^^:::^:::V^
:::V:^
^^::V>^:2^
11PPqx
$ :ZQ^
^:^;^
f:^:2
;:19-
^::V>
:^:Z^::^:
:^:V:
2::^:
t1$0y,
Z^^Z^
Y:::^:^:V
^^^:^:
:^:^:^
2^:Zb:
>::2:V::V^;
2^:^:::V:
^::2b2^
^^:V:
:^::^2:^:^::
QUPQMPUT
%b^:^:^
y^?^:
_:^^:
:::^b
>^:^:::^:2^
:^::^:-^
b_:^Z^:
^:^2:
y2:^:V :^
;:^2^:^::^:^:;^:^:^:
:^2b:^
::V^^:6^:_
-1-x1-
2b1_::-:
:^:^: 2^;^::2^2:
:^:^^:
1V:V:
:::V:
6^::^:V^:
T^:^:
^::^:
:^2^::2>
:^:^^
::^:::2^:
^:^:^^^
;V^^^
::^^^:_1
1:2:
:Z^:^^^2^::::2
:^:^:^
:-:_:-
;^:^2^::::
^::^:
^:2^:2^2
^:^1_
:^::^:^:
^:2^:
-PMyTQ0
Q:^:^^
^^:^::
>2b:V
-^^^b
:^:V:
^:2 -:
-:Z:^2:^
^::^:
b2^Z^:V:^2::^2 :^:
;:^2^:^V
^:^::2^:
$:V^^::
:^::^:
:2:^:::Z^
:U1b^:^Zb:::V
1^:^::^^^
:^:::
:^:2::^::^^
V::Z^:
ZV>V:
^::V>
^^:V2
::^ 1
^:::^
^:^:?
:::V>
^2b:^:
^:^:^:V>V:2b::Z
^Z:V
::^:^
:V:^^
:^2^::
2^:V:^
2b::^
V:2^:^::^::
^:^:^^
:^:^:^:^
2:V^^-^:-
5) :^::2:^
:^2:^^:
2^:V>2:
:2^:^::
Q:^2b2
:^2:^2
2>^^
1^^:^
b^:2
:2^:^:
:::V:
:V:2^:^6
z:^::^
2::V>2^::2^::^:2^2bZ^::
::^:^
%b^:^:V
2 12^:^:::;
:^^:^:V:
V^:b2
^^_:^
::::^:
^:V:^::
::^:::
^:2^:^
:^:V:^::^::^::^
:::2^::
%b2^:
-^_VbV:^:
$2V:^
:2b::^:Z
^^::^
^2:^:::V>:^:
^:^:2^
^::Z^
^:^2^^::
1^:^:
:^:V:^:^
^2:^::
^^^U :^:2
2c2^:2^;
2^:^::^:
:^:V>2^
:^Z2b::^:;^
;^:^:
)>::^;^:
Mf:::^::^
::^6:
:2:^2b2^:
^ 2:^2::V
1_:^::
:^:^:
:V:^2:^:^:
2:^2^::^
^:V:^
:^:::^::
H0y--$y
^;U;:
^:^::^:^:
:^:2:^:^:^:2Q
:Z^:^
:^2^2
:Z^::^:
::^:^::^::::
:^:^:^2
>V::^
VbV:::2fZ
b:V:^
:^:^:
V^^:2b2:^:^:
:V::]2
:^^::
^^^:^^
M::_1b:2^:
:_:::V::
2^:V>
::^:^
^::^:
>2^:b
:^:^ 2:^
1 2^:^:Z
^61:Vb
V:V::^;^:
^:V::
:^1^>V
U^_:1
Z^:^bV>^
-V2:V^ (
:^::V^^^2
Z^::^;2
-)1)^:
V:^:::^
2::V::Z:^^
11:^:
:^::^2^:^:^
^::^:
:V:^2:
^2:ZV:
^V:^:::^:
^_:^:^:^^
-$,q8y,1
%_:^2
~:^2bZ
%:^::2^:^2^bV
Q :>_:
::^:V>Z:V
:^2^::
:V:::^:V>
:^:V:^^
z:^::
^::V:^
b2^:2^
^:^:::^:^::V>
:^:V:::^
2:V::
:2:^2^:
P]$U--
^1::^::
:^:^:
:V:^:
^::^:^
^Z:^::^
:2::^
V>2^:
2:^::
^::^:^^1_b
>^2^2^:^::V^^
Z^ :^2
^:V:^;
::^^^
:z::^:V^::
^:^:^2^:
>Z:^2:^2:
V:^::
^:V::::
-b^::^
^;V:2
^:^2:2^
::^::^:
2:^::
V^^::2^::^:Z
:^:2^2::-
2:^Z:
^:2:^
:^:2^
:^:::
^:^V:
^:^2:
-^::^
^ 2^:>
V^;:^:
::^::
:^2>V^^:V
:^:^:2^:
::^::^:^::^
^^:V:
11V:^:^:^:2b;:
2^::^
^:V^:
::^:^:
2^:2
V:2bV
^f2>^
^2:^^
:^:^:
--0$-
- ::9Q_
12^^:
^2:^:
2:^:^2
V^:^:V
Ub2:V
_:^:2
>2:^:^
T1-2^::
VbV:^:
>V:2:V>
:V:^:2
9Q?V:::V:
-Qx1P1
^:^^::;
^_>V:^
::V:^2b:V:
)Q-y1-
U::::^
:V::^2:
::^::^::
1^^V;
^::V::^:
2:^:^
^:2^2::V
:V-Zb2^:22^:
::_2:
:^:^2^2:^^Vb^
^:1^:^
:V:^2:^
:^::2^
2 111:
^:Z^::
^^:^:
^ 1^:2^:2
V^^:^2^2:
Uty,y
)^2^b
2:^^:
- :^:^:
:_::-
^:2::^:
;^:-:
:^:^:^
2^:^:
-:V:^
:^2>:
^:^2^
:V:^:^:V
::V:^
^2B2^
2^:^2
^:V:2^
-1-:^
V::::^:^:^
V^:V:
::^2:2
Vf^1:
^::V:^2b:
V:^:V
V::V::V:
6Z^::
::^:V
^2^2:
:^;V:
>:^::_
:^2:^
:^:2^^b2>
^::::
:^:^2^_
U 1^:^
:V 1U:2^:Z
:::V:^:
^:^2^::2^:
::^:V:^:
$^^:VB
^::^;
_^2b2
^:V>2
::2^2^
2^:z:
V:y 1:2
V:^2^:Vb
:V>V:^2::
:V:^:V
$:^:^
:_2::
:^:2:
-:V:1
_:V:^2
:VM::^:
:V:^1;
::::^2b
:V:::
^2:V:
2^:V::2^2
:^:^:
-:^:V
:^:^:
^:V::
2V>^2
:^::Z^
:V::^
Q:b2V:V:::V:]2:
^:2^::^
V:::^
::::::^
:2^::^
^::^2^:
:^:2^
2^:2^:V
2^::^:^
:^:::
^:::V
^2>V:
2^:V2
_::::V
^2^2^2^2>^
2^2:^:V
^^^:V
2b:2^
:^2^:^:;^
V:^^V
:;^:V:
Q:^-^:
::2^:^:^:
^:V:V
:^2:V>V
V^:^::^2
V:^::
--10--
%^:^2f2
^::^2b:
V^:^:
u 2^:
2^:2>V:
>2:V:V
::^:^1:^:^U:V:
^::^:V:
1^:V::^Z
^2^::V:
--,MT
-:2V-
z2>V::^
:V::
6f2:^
:V:2:^:
:2>2^
^:^1_::
:^2^:^:^
:Y>V:
:2^:V:
^:2:^
z^^:^
^::^:z
2^:2^
:^::^
V^):Z
2:V>^2^
^2::V
:^:2:
:2b:^2:^2:
:2:62
- 2:^1
2^2:^^
::^2^V9
^2:2b
:^1VU
:22^:
::2^:M:
V 1-1
2^:2:
:^:^22:^
V2^:^
:V:^:^
^2:^:^
Z:^:2^:^:^
^:-:U
^::V:
:2^:^:
1^:2^
2:V:^:2^2:
::2^::
2^::^2::^
V^^2^
:^2:^
:::^2^:
:2:V::
^::^2
2^:^::
V:^:V
:^1^:
::^:V
:^2b:
2^:^1
-PM1Q,
_V::^
:^^2:
->V:V:^:
:V:^2
:V:^1
:Z^:V
2V:V:^:2:V:^2:^2>
::V>:V
)-^::
;^2::
:^2Yb1:
Q:2:^2^:
:^2:^
1::^:2^:
:;U:^
::V:^:^:
-_:::
.^1::
V:^2^2^
:V:: 2
1::UU
>V::^
:^2:2
^^^::
2^^:^
^:V::2
^2^2:^:
:^2^:^
:^:^2
:^:^1
2^:^2:-:
:^:^:V:V
:^:^:
:^^^-:^
:^:Y:
;:^:^2^
:2b2^
2:^:2
$ ::;1::-
Q 2^:
)^;::
^:1-^:
^2b2:
V^VbV
^:V:^:^
:^2:^::
:1^::^2
2^:1M
$2b2^
;U::)^;
1^:VB
-::_1^
^:::::^2
2:^2^:
^:V>_
U:^:2:^2:
2^2:^2^:2bV::
V^^2V>2^:
^:^:^
U::V:^
y:^:9
^2^:1
:2:^:2V:V
^2^::
::V::
^::^^
::V::
,-x1-
U 2-_
2^::^
:V:::1^:
V:V::V::
V^V>V:^:V
22>V:
$2-b2
V^:^:
::V:^:
:U2^2
V:^:V:
:V>2:
:V:)^;
:_:2:
^2V::
::2^:
^ 1^::V
V:12^
2-^:VB
2P>2
:^2^:2
:::V::
:V:V:
2:V::
2^::^
:^:V::
:^:2^2^:^2V
2b2^:
1R:(^
Q 2::
:V:^
^b12b
2:^6^
z:^::
U::V^
^1 2:
Vb2:^:2^
^:2V2^
^2:U^
^1^:^
:V:^::
2:2:^:
^2^::
^:^:2
:^^$2f
:V:::
22>V::
>-::V:
::^21
^:1_:
^2:V:
2^:V:
:^:^:2:
2:^-c
2:V:^2
::2^::
2^2^2
fV:2:
2:^:^:V:^
^:-:2
2:V:^:
:V2:^
^:V2f
:::^:
:^::2b::
U^_:^2
^:^:^
:V:^:
V:2:V:
2^:61;V:
^:1::
:^:2:
1^-::V
^2:::
^1^2:
:^:::2^
2:V:^9$
-^2:^
:^::V
22^:^
^V::^
2^:2:
2^:::V:6V
:^:2^
V::^1:V
2^:^2
^2:V:V
V:11^2
^:2:6^2
:VbV:
2^:V:
^ :^1
z:1^1^
:V2^^
^2b::2^2
^::V2:^:V:
V:^2::
:2:^:
-^:2:
Y:2^:^2
2^:^:
V:V2^2^
^:^;^y-
2^:^2
:^2b:
^2^2^V::
:2b:V
2^:V>
6z:^:
^:^11
^:62:
^22:^
6U:V:
Q:^2^
1^2:V
:V:^:
1^::2
:V:V:
:::^:
:1^22:^:
:_::[2::V
V2:2^
:VB^2
^2^::
2:V:2
V2^:^
^2:^2
2^:V:
2:^:V
6^2b;^
^2^:^:
1^2:^
:V:^:
)U^^2
:2::^2
-]$:z
U,U-Y,
2-b::V:
^:MB:
2^:^22
:M:^:
:2^:b
V:Q:6
]UU,y-
^:2V:
:^:^:2
:V11::^
2^:^1
-^::2
Q:1U2
V2^:V:
U]P$1
6:^?V
^:V:^
1:^2b2f
2 1::
^::^:
.^:^;
V:V:V
:^:2:
%:b2:
V::_bV
V::2:
^;:1-:V
^:6-^
1V1^U
^:1:^
- :2^
::^::^
V:^:^:^:1-
):Q:^2
2b:::
1^:2^:
:-:12
^21^:
:;V:V
^2^:U
::V1:
1:2:2^
Q>^:V
-:V:2
-Q,$-
^2::1^
--:V:
-1Q,1
-1V:^;V
621 2:
2:2:1
p342-4
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 1: Development (page 4)
ftsTitle
The steam ironclad, HMS Warrior, next to an older wooden ship of the line. From the 1860s auxillary sailing rig was still carried on steam ships, but by the end of the 19th century, as steam engines became more reliable, sails were finally dispensed with.
Ships (4 of 6)
1. Development
The age of steam
With the end of the long military struggle between Britain and France in 1815, designers turned their attention to ways of improving propulsion and hulls. Mechanical means of driving ships had been talked about for centuries, but it was the invention of an efficient steam engine towards the end of the 18th century that made major improvements possible.
A small paddle steamer briefly sailed on the River Saone in France in 1783, and another on the Delaware River in the USA in 1786. The first practical and commercially successful steamer, however, was the Charlotte Dundas, which ran on the Forth and Clyde Canal in Scotland in 1802. Other inventors pressed on with designs, and by 1816 there was a service running across the English Channel. In 1821 the Royal Navy ordered its first class of paddle steamers for auxiliary missions, such as towing ships of the line. Not being dependent on the strength and direction of the wind, steam tugs made movement in restricted areas easier and safer. Steam also meant that time schedules could be maintained, which was important on long voyages. In 1838 the Sirius and the Great Western (the latter designed by Brunel) crossed the Atlantic, proving that steam power on its own was also suitable for long voyages.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
(-xQMu(yQ
HQx-QH1
LQ-,QU-
U,LTI-
Q(1ty
TQ)P(1u
$1$)-
L-P-1P)-,--,
y91yQ]
1u:Q]y
,-p-QL
0$,$1P
1-qQ)
-,)-LUQ$
U:U1u
%P-P)PLUP
MPLyUu
UPUu1-
PL-y,y
$PP$-$1P-
xyQt)
y1yUP
L-$Ul1QP
]y1x1P9-
$QP)TQQ-
M1]11u)
$,M,yu0u
P-1)H
LQ(t-
y]y]y1TQ
yUUQU,Q
L-P(y
tP1-1Q
y1y]M
yUyU]M
qt-Pu
TH-,x,M$
-$tH,M,-
P1-(QTQu1-
1UUyy
UUQU-
yUU1,1U1y-P
1yy-Y1y
M-$)Q(yy-Qy
1H,U,--P-
$)-H-
LQ($,$
$,$$,
,Uyyy1--V0y
u]y-xQ
)Q1t1PU
-,u0%---
$-PLQ
$%-,x
-Q1-M
11Q11Q1UU
1U-UPy
UU1-YUU-1xUy
-,(u,Q,
Q,M-TyQxQx,L)Q,$
(-Q,(TH1x
-T1t](-p-,-
-TUy,QUUYt-])t-
1y9Qu
11-1V1:UU
yQ1u0y
U-y--
Q1PUt
PUUUU,
^--$1Q(H-,$
-$$1$t-MTl1-xU1yyTUPy-LH-T
p1PPy
-Q)y-Q-Q
y1QUy1U
x-LQQ
1y,-uUy,yQ
bU]QY^
xUy:1
QP1y:
]11M$
yyPyyUY
l--1t-
y\Q1HP--
PLUUU
u1--(y
-xUQUx-,yY1
u-yT]P
Qy1U1-(yUu1
U]u]U
$$-$-,y1Py0$
u]P1P
Q,yUPZu,-u1-x-xy-yyTUyTyU
]QUyP
:au:y
}U^]y:y
1110-1Q1H
:-$-P1x%Q-,y
-Py1$Tu
-QLQ1
$HPP($
(-T,(
PU]UQ(1u,U$Zy,1U0Q1UUy]
-]uy1M1
-1-(1UQ
QUUyU,
$U1---x-L-t9M,y
Uy,qx1Q)x1U1,Q(y-Q]
H%P)$-L,
-H$U-L-
pQPHu$$U
1--PQ0
t1P1Qx]
:U]y]
1110qT-UU1y1U1Q)y1yUU]u0yU
UQTuTuyx
-U1}1
]QUQ0
)1-T-1QMT
1--U,u
IT$1-
Ht-,y,
q-Hy1
$U$-$QyHU$Q
xU-1pU-uTu
VTQay
Yy11u:
U-y1-QU
UyUy]
1-QbQ1VU
-1u0y
]QTu1P
H$PHQ
-TQ11Q-Q
T1Q1--xQU
u]uUyUy
Q1U1Q
PU1y1y]
-,(Q-0Q0Q
HTyu(H
Q($P(-HQ(
U,)y-y
P-1TQy
-(Q,Q1H
H$,I-(
I1$,Q
-H]P1
>1uYyyU
1yUQU
-11Q]Myy
---$---
uH-,Q
UY11QQ
y]xUy
9U-1)UyUuTU]QT
P---T
tT--0y
U]1111-y
M]xUx
U1P-L
-T-$-
$1Q(mQ
P:Uy1y]yy1
,(-UH1
P1,q1,1u
$1,I,L-
$1Q(Q-
-,MTU,M
bP11Q
y11-UU
(Q1tyT
]ubP]yU,y9H1,)U-
$T-$1-
H--$$
P)PUtUxu
(--11t
1QTQ-U
$UP)T11,
%P),P
1,M,-
1UU-MPyy
-PMPU,
HU$%u$
-P)PL
]QTQ,1,
}Uyy1,11Q(u
HUt10H
-y,Q(
,-1$-,
yLUUx--1
,yP,U,
(Q(Q(y
H,Q,U
u]Q,1uyPQ,
-L1Qp-tU
-,-,U,
>QMy-U,-
$]Q0Q
y1y0P-1y
P(Q,U
--(UQ)P
$y,-1HUPL
-T-U,u
y-Q-(P-x
x-1--y-
]U1Q0uYy
yU,1Q
-$%PU
-,11-y
PuU-P
]Uy1,0Q
$QUPy
-Q,-U
U1I-0Qx
1tUU,u
]T--Q,Q0
1H-Yy
-]y]P
yyUt-
xUQ)uT
y9P)x--z
]y1y,
uP])y]
xyTyyt(uQQ
]1-L1,LU
:U]Uu
yy9ty
]uT-L-
-1yyyQ
$1Q(-
UxQUxUt
1Q\qxP
pxTQUP1(U
Qy1UU,y1y
-1111y
QTU1q
T1Qy]u
1YQpUP
P)Q0-
)xuUyU
,,M$U-(Q$
U-1T1y
^9P1-T-
UQ\y,P1y
tUU,1UP1
-Q11MQ
TyUy]Q0
y]uU1y
UxUyUy-
]yTuUxI
UU-t)P1
TyyPyU
-yt1]
UU-]y
UTy}]
1y,Q-
]t1)y
Uy,QU
yUyyy
0--P]
UyUyT
yUyyUy
UT--U
y\yyQTUu
MyUTQU
UPUy]yyUy
euyTy
U,-Q1,L,u
Tyy]yyx
UUQT-yTy
PUU,U,
y]yUy
uxUyT
UyyYu1
uQuLyu
QxuTyTQ
UyyUy
yPyTy-
utUyYM
Uy]yUy
PqPuUQT
UxyPQx1yx
yTyUxQ
uauTyUU
\uTQU
U-y1,
x9uTyx
]yyUyUu
11-1z
]1U0U
UT%yUy
P)yUtUyU
Uyu0u
uxUyU
y]yuUy
UxUy--
Uyu0u1U
y,yy]
UuxUU
Qy0uU
UyuYu
T1P1Q
-1y-]L
bQUUUuUx-,u
yTyy]My
qTuxUQQ0
]yyxQz
Qxy]u]
,UUty
]y1^Py
UU]y1y
UuPqQ
p342-5
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 1: Development (page 5)
ftsTitle
The battleship HMS Dreadnought was the first large ship to use the Parsons steam turbine. The Dreadnought gave its name to a class of battleships carrying ten 12-inch guns, and which were faster than any other large warship. The race among the European powers to build such ships reached a climax in World War I.
Ships (5 of 6)
1. Development
Iron hulls and the screw propeller
The introduction of steam put excessive weight into wooden hulls that were already reaching their maximum size, with warships approaching 7000 tons. An early precaution was to stiffen hulls with iron bracing, and it was not long before all-iron hulls were proposed. The first iron steamer operated successfully from 1820, and several small warships followed.
Navies were reluctant, however, to build large warships with iron hulls and paddle engines. The iron hull was found to affect the compass on long voyages, and tests in the 1840s showed that solid shot would fracture on impact with wrought iron, causing lethal splinters.
As well as being inefficient, the paddle wheel - in naval contexts - restricted armament and was vulnerable to enemy shot. These drawbacks were overcome by the invention in 1836 of the screw propeller, credit for which is shared by the Swedish-American John Ericcson and by the Englishman Francis Pettit-Smith. After a series of experiments this new method of propulsion gained widespread approval, with the Royal Navy ordering its first screw steamer (HMS Rattler) in 1840, and Brunel redesigning the SS Great Britain for screw propulsion later that same year. The Royal Navy initiated a major program to convert sailing ships of the line to steam, cutting ships in two to provide volume for coal bunkers, boilers and engines. But iron for large warships did not find favor until the Crimean War (1853-56), when the threat from explosive shells forced the British and French to build armor-plated 'floating batteries'. This led to a desire to apply armor to a line-of-battle ship. The French built the Gloire, which was a wooden ship covered in armor. The British then built the much superior HMS Warrior, which had an iron hull with armor added.
In the ensuing arms race, heavily armored ships, known as ironclads, became the focus of ship technology. Such ironclads saw action in the US Civil War. Until the end of the 19th century, the use of heavier and heavier armor-plating was matched by the ever-increasing power of naval guns, some in turret mountings. HMS Inflexible, completed in 1881, had four 80-ton guns in twin turrets, and was also equipped with torpedo tubes and even electric lighting. Great Britain, with ample supplies of iron and coal, came to dominate world shipbuilding in a way that had not been possible when wood was the standard material. From being a large-scale operator of merchant ships, Britain became shipbuilder to the world.
As steam engines became more reliable, auxiliary sailing rig became redundant, and by 1900 sail-and-steam ships were a thing of the past. Cheap steel was now available and had replaced wrought iron.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1-1--
Y1--11-
-1--Y-
1-1--1
1--111-
---11
U^Uy1
-11--1
-1-11-11
-1-U1-
1-111-
-1-11--11-
11111-1
11-U1
1-,11-
1U1U11
U1--1
-1U11
1U111
1-11--11--1
11-1-111
-111-
-Y-111
1-1-1111-
--11111111-1
1U111
111U111
111U1
11111
11-1U1
1U1111U1
12U11^1
11U,1]
]-11-
p342-6
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 1: Development (page 6)
ftsTitle
Transatlantic liner Cunard. The first liners ran a fast, dependable and luxurious service in the first half of the 20th century. Liners such as the Cunard are now largely used for cruises, the transatlantic route having been taken over by airlines.
Ships (6 of 6)
1. Development
20th-century developments
Brunel's Great Eastern (1858) - which was over 200 m (nearly 700 ft) long - was ahead of its time, but it proved that there was no practical limit to the size of iron ships. By the early years of the 20th century, liners were plying a regular transatlantic trade. When it sank after hitting an iceberg on its maiden voyage in 1912, the Titanic was setting new standards for luxury and comfort.
By the turn of the century the demand for higher speeds, both in passenger liners and warships, forced engineers to look for an alternative to the reciprocating steam engine. The Parsons steam turbine offered reduced vibration at maximum power, and after experiments in destroyers, the Royal Navy adopted steam turbines for the revolutionary battleship Dreadnought (1905). Shortly afterwards the Cunard Line made a similar decision for its new liners.
Between 1900 and World War II the picture was one of steady development to meet changing needs and to take advantage of changing technology. Amongst merchant ships there was the growth of transatlantic liners with ever-increasing size, speed and standards of comfort culminating in the Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. Oil tankers grew in size and number as the demands of industry and transport for oil increased. The diesel engine was widely adopted as a cheap propulsion unit for merchant ships and minor naval craft. Larger warships and the large liners retained their steam turbines, but with engineering advances providing increased power in less space.
In the military field the early years were dominated by the introduction of HMS Dreadnought , the first all-large-gun fast battleship. It gave its name to a type of battleship, and prior to World War I the major naval powers embarked upon building numbers of them to maintain the credibility of their fleets. Advances in technology brought the submarine from a virtual toy to become a major factor in both World Wars. Armed with torpedoes it became a lethal weapon system and its covert operations were aided in World War II by the 'snort mast' which enabled it to run its diesels at periscope depth. Destroyers, frigates and corvettes were developed to combat the submarine, using sonar to detect it and weapons such as the depth charge to attack it.
The other major change came about with the introduction of aircraft. Special ships were designed to carry and operate them and new weapons developed to combat them. The aircraft carrier started as a primitive auxiliary vessel in World War I, but with the destruction of the US Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor in 1941 by Japanese carrier-borne aircraft, the aircraft carrier came to displace the battleship.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-Y111
1-10-
Q:u9M
U:9U1
11-:-
1U]Q:
:-1-1
,1-11
1^2bV]
.Y12
U9M:2
]N]1y2
0111-
-0--1
1^2U:
-2-11
:1^2Y:
2^.^1:Q:
->y:U
-:M:1
V:U:Y
~YU1-
:z:U:z:
2U1Q>u
:2:U:U
21V:-
bz:U:
U:1^1
U:M>Q
:MfQ>
Q:Q:V2^
U^V2:
U UV:
1^):^
U2^-^2:V:^
VU-:V1
-^1:u2
u:V:u
62:^:
^2:zY
y:12^
V2V:2:
U:Q:V
:ubU:
1^2^:
>:--9-
2U:V1^2
>1VY1
2^1]1
1-1:1
)b^:U
61:1:
V:2:Q
U:-V
V2^2V:Q:2Y^
:Q2-:
:21^1
U2:U>
U121:
22Y:U
V2:Qb
1fy 2^
::1:2
11U1:y
:y 1^
1:Vb
VB1^-1
,I,)x
1M,Mu
ybU:z
2:R:V:
Q:1^1
My1H-
bu9-1U
:VY2Ub
b1^2^
-yU^MU-Uy,
QtqPu
Y9--11U1
UuTtlTQ$-mzU
^9Mfy
U2>2:
1z:ub
]PHQ^1^
U2V21U
]Q)u2
V:V:V
9Zz:z
11-U,
UyUy-y
lQyV:v:1
^-^1^
Ut-lP
9--11
2U1Y1
11-:1U1
t:U--1
QxQLQ
UuuUl
tUuHU
-,)QU
)U-9-1
)l-yUt
QtuLy
U:1^2
yUupUU
UQM]uHPtl
9z>Q]
:V9N2
b11-1
1PQ(P
tUmUutuq
^1V:1
]yPPL
:U1^2:
lulQll
129y^y
-L-,%HQ
QLQt(Q
-HyHH
plx$-)tt
b11-U
^2V:M
lPPHtH%
V:R>1
2^:$-0
HPqPtlyl
1^1:U2
:V::Q
PtUu:1b
HQlQp
Y:U:V
UHuLu
^2^Y:
lptuPq
VBzY2:
zbU9z
2^1^2
upQql
V:V:.:
,IPlPp
6:V>Q
,qPPltq
:M:-::
16V1^
^62f-
Y:2^1
$ltltly
U:U:2
^1^-^
V::^1
b: b^
U2^-b1:1
^V^1V^
U:1f-
^2V:2
:^:2:
2>Q>V
:V:Y:
^.>R:
:1:ZV
:^2V:
2fV:2
2:U2^
b-^:12
:U:UCu
6b1^9
::V>2:^:^2
^:V:Q:V:
:V:2^
U:2^1
2^-^2^
:V::U
Vb.^2
U^:^2
U:V:U
Y:22^
:2^1:V
:V:V2
:U:22
2^->V
-^1_1
:U>2^2
>-b2^22
::^:Z
1:2V:-
^-^::
::VbQ>
^2:Q>2^
:QbV:
:V:V2
2VbQ:
:2:2:
fU:V:
U:1^)
V:1;1
2b1^2
:V::2^
Q:1^2
_:2:-
:U:1:V
::V^U
2Y^:2
^-^1:1
>Q:V2^2>U
:V>-^
1>Q:2:
1^2^2
^:2b1^
6^V>2
:Q>2::2
:2>^:V
2^2V:Q^
:1^2^1:
2:1:^2>V:
:U::2
:V:2b2^
:^2:1:
1b2^:
6:V:2^2
Y^->Q
^2:U:
:^2^-_1
1^V:bV:
:2:Y:
2^1:1V
>V:2U2
^1_1:
V>-^1V:
:MfV:
^2b2:
^^2:2
:^1^2^:
UfV:U
2f-:^
:Q;U:^
:.b1:
.:U:2
U::U>
:b2:2
2:2:Y
6b2:Y2^
1V:Vf2^
2:2^2
2b2^:^^:b2:
:^2:V>V
2:2:V
2:^::.>2:2
:2^2^:
2:2:
^::^2^
1^1;]:
:^2bV:V^:V>2f2
::V:2
^-^:2
2V1:V
:U:2V:
:^:].
V:2^2
:2:Y
::^bz:z::
2^2::b
V:V::2
U:V::y2Q:
:^:Y:
^2^:^:zB
^2:V>
2V:U:
1V1:-
^1>Q:
bR:U:V
6:^22:
2b-b1Z^2:1
bV:2^
:^:2^^
^2:^2:^2:
V>Z:^2
2b2^:2
1^:2bVBV^:
^:V2^2
V2^2^
:Q>V:
^2V:^2b-^:^2
:1>V:
b-^2^2
:^^^2b
2b-^2
^:^-b2^:V:V
p344-1
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 1)
ftsTitle
The LNG carrier Khannar. LNG (liquefied natural gas) carriers have special insulated tanks in which the gas is carried under pressure and at low temperature (-100 degC / -148 degF).
Ships (1 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Over the last 50 years the design of commercial and naval ships has undergone radical changes both as a result of advances in technology and as a response to changing economic pressures and military threats. In all types of ship automation has helped to reduce crew size and the cost of construction and operation. In spite of competition from the air, ships still carry the great majority of cargoes; and although the great transatlantic liners have disappeared, cruise ships and ferries flourish. In the military field, the need to cope with high-speed missiles - both in attack and defense - has meant that modern warships are now equipped with complex electronic and computer systems.
Advances in technology have both posed threats and provided opportunities to commercial shipping. Since World War II the main influences have been the growth in air travel, the tremendous increase in demands for energy, the need to transport large volumes of cargo around the world, and the increase in leisure time among the affluent societies of the West.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 1: DEVELOPMENT
* WEAPONRY
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
P1P1-,M,
T-P(0U
11U10
10P0$11
--L10-(1
Q1,0P(
Q(U0U0
^11U,
L1-01
P-U0,P
U0,1-,L
--1U$
-,Q1U1
0U1TU$
0-U0U,
0P11-,
L11Q0U10$
-1,-1,U
011U0
1Q001U0U0
Q,10U11
1T11U-
8]\L$
U0Q0U,-
10TU10191U
11$U0
P(1,$
P1P-,
0-,U,
01T1yT
1P10U10U1,
,L11,
U0,--P(-0
11y11U(
Ty]$-x1T
Q,1P)
,M-L1Q0Q
P(-,$
11-,$1]
U0-U1
,-1T10U9
T1T,-
P1U11
P,zUy
UP,L1
10U1-,
P-P-0
-,L,-$
Q10U91
T1,0U
U1011T1-,P
1P1,-
y,U,)
U-11] b
1T1U0U0U01
)P,L-
9y10-11,1U
U10U,P
P1-1U0
Y1T,-,-T1
UPMTy]
y1,P(P
T10U1T
$-P(U
0U-0U-
U1P,1P
UQ-1)
11-]T
L-T-1Q
U,100U
(U,TL
T1T1,P0-T
0y,PUuU
-T11U0
Ux1P,U
TPT1,M,
10Q-1P,)U0
UPPMy%
,1-(P,
U01T01T
$UP0P
,1P10P,10
PL1P(
Y1,Q
U1P0-P-L0P
0100T0
yUyQt0x
01-0U1,
0y01T,U
]qaxUP
-T0P0P
-M,P)
-P(-PPQ,M,
,pPTQLT
$,L,(P,(PP
L,t(t,p,tL
tLtPptL
ltLltl
(,Q(,)P(,
tPltl
HHtLlltlP
$L,P(P,P
P($-,
tLltlltlP
lltltLtltl
-P),0Q
tllPlPl
llPplt
bx0]U
PLU01P)P
P,(Q,
9LV-,U
1,U-Q0P-
,),T^
yTyQTx,,L
t1x-0U,,L,
(,L,Q($
P$H$,$
xy1x1xy,,L
,QUP,)
PpltltlP
H,H$,$
lPltl
UPyUTUy
y-(P,T
P-P(,$
ltlPx
UU]10P
,HH$t
tltll
1P1,b
0y,y(QUy]
PtlPp
ltlltL
-UTP-
ttll$
Plltl
0P(QU
pllttLltlt
ll,$PP
(P,L,
11L,-
lltlttl
HHPHH
1P1,(y1
,L,Q(-
(1yt$
H$H$,HPt
t$,HH
]yt1,U1
H,HH$$
1P,QUx
,PUxlt
-TUT1
,P)P(P,
lltll
,)P,)
P(PH,T,$,P
$$tLt
U1T0U0
y1yUPP
HtPpl
$tHPl
lPp$l
tlPltp
xltll
$$P$Ht
t$tl$t
llPlPl
$HPHlttl
(tPpltl
PltLl
tlPlt
PpPltt
LlPt$,LPp
$,$tP
Pltlt
H$HPH
HHllt
ttLltltt
LltLtl
tptPpH
LlltptLHtL
tPL,($P(tt
tHtpt
tlltltL
tptLlt
$$H$t
tPplPtLllt
19T-T
tPltL
tlltlltltl
P,$,(1
P,$Pp
ltlltllt
ltltl
$PltpPt
P$,HP
$$tllP
tPpPHT
,HPlt
lPlt,t,t
tpPll
lPtpPpl
l$llH
tptPp
PHHPL$$
$,P(,$
HH$yPHH$
Ht$y$uLHU
$,$$P
tlPlt
PH-HPpl
t$$,H$
PH,pP
tPHPHx$
H,$$P$
$P$HH
PHlP$lHP
lPH,t$,
,H$,HH
P$$P$
PPpxuUtytL
$$P$H
,H,LPPu
TxPxTt,]
lHP$Pl
$H$PT
P(P(xTtu
tMttLQ
HH$,PL
P$H,$
,tTyt
$PLt,xTxtT
10Q1U00
PH,(H,
xUutLt,1
xxTut
P$t$T$,$,$
tLtTtMtpP
0U,P(
tUxPtxP
0U-U1
HPHHl
$lHtLyxPP
0U]19
0tLPt
tLPP$P
y$Hltp
xPu(P
ll$y$
lltLt,$
$THUH
10-T]1
HllPpP
T10T0P1
,Hx$lt
Q$U$ll
lH$ll
\-T1P
1U1)1
T101T01U0U
,U11T
1Y1U]U01T1
0U1-T1
ttltl
01T1T10
tPlH$P(y,$
,Q,-01U
xUU]TU
U0U01U
0P0U\P]
tHHPlH$Hl
ltHP$
U-01,
U0U1T
tll$P
}]T1,U
P1U0U01T1
T1,T9
P0Q-0Q
,T1,U
1T1,P1UT
01T00T1U0U
ll$H,
0T,0T1
-P0,P
llH$Pl
TU1P1T1
1]y1y
U1Y1]T0T
]T-Q01
L11Y-TUy
Y1U10
U1P1,11T00
T]T11Y0
1U,y]
T0Q0UT1U0U
]y]y01
0P1--11
P,1U0-
110P,L00
1Q01U,9T1]
UT1U,,T]x1
(00,1
1P01T
]00U,1P1-x
L1,Q0,Q,L
(T00yx
0T11Y1]
1Y1T1
1YP1Q0
UU,M,U0
T9T1yT
11P0UTY
9T-1T1
0U1T1x-1
0-0U1
1T9(U0010Q
090U0
,10U1T1
L,U1,U,-,
U,P1T,1U0
P-0U0U-U
0t1,P0P(0,
HllH,
-T0y10U0
UU1T11-P
0y01T9T]T
0U0UYUYUUT
UTT10
Y1x9U0U
]L1PUP
,1U10
\(1T,-1)
P1U0-
)0UTx\
tHPpP
-8U0,
U0-T11U1T
1U0Uy,1P
T1y0P1
x1U--,U
1U,U1Q0
0P(0Q
Ux1TT
0U10U]x
-T,Q0Q-0P,
$HH,l
0010Q0U0
H$,Ht$
]\1T0
1T-P1U0UU0
P10U]
]y1T1Yy0UT
T],]]T
-T1y81
UU]1x0
y],,P,,
l$lHl
0UY1
T11,9
U0P0UU1TTU
1x1T1
y1U1y
,Q1x1yY
1T-0U
T1TU]Y
Q(0y0
,x-T1x01T1
HtLtt
0U0P01
0P-P1P-T1Y
U,T10Q
0U,UPUU
,H$HH$HH
U,,U0]
1T1U0
19U1T
T1--T1
T011U1yTU
U0U1xUP]
U1)U0-P1
-x1Q01x10,
-T10-U
01T10U01
1U0T01010
,,T10x
UxT9T,0
T1-\)1T0--
T--0U0U,
\UT1T1
T11QT1U-
1(--T1P
U1U\y11x
$$HH,H$H
P$-U,
U0U,11T,0
10U00
TU0Ux01P0P
]1U0,
,1-1(T1T,1
-11T10T-T1
,0T]y0
xUT1,0,U1P
0,U010U0
UTy1\
PHHPll
1-T1T,U0T0
,Q1P0T
,0Q1U-1Y9y
01P0U,U
-T(U-TU
ptPp$H,H
PH$$HH
H$l$$P
-x1U0U
Q-(T11Ty,
U0yU,
0U,P1
xPt(P
0Q0y0U
P0U00Q01x
1]0UU
1U1xU
10UUT1101P
0T,T1T,1P-
x]x1Q,,
$$H$,
0,0$11TUT
U18U0U0U
--T-01U0U1
1x110T0
1x1TT1T1]
,T1U,]T
U,01Q
U,1T]1T1-,
,H$H$P$
]x101T1Q
0U,,-10P1,
P110P10T0U
T1T9U-T1U1
1T1U0
0T--Ux
H$HHP
1x-U,U01
T,,U0T1T,L
0-T10
UT0U0
$PHP$H
PH$$H
$Hl$H
11U\UTQ0,
1U0U1y0
U1T,U,(P
0,U1T001
,$$PpH,
)U0]UT1y,T
-1QY]0UUx
,1T99
TQ0-0UY
U0U,-,U0,
,L,T10
0tlPH,H
(P11U1
U1]y0T1T1T
1Q0Q1,P(T1
1U0U0U0
U0U0P1U]y-
0U,,U0Q
1T,T1
t,$P$
1T-\UT
1T10-0-1
H$H$$
P$x$,
t,pPp
x1T0]
Y]yyU
Pt$t,
LtlHP
tpPpHTt
PpPH,
]U1U11y\U0
1T1U,0
tpPtLtp
PHPLP
t,H$Px
t,LPPH
P91T0U0T11
0P1T1
PpxHH
Uy0U0
0T9P0U0U10
y11U]
tH,HH
tp,tP
1Yy0U
UTU1Y
90T00y
1y1-T11x1
UT1U0
pHPllHl
P$$,H
TU]Y0P0
U0U-U11
1U1U01Y
1x]\0U
]U9x1
UTUP(U1x
]yUP1tll
$,($ll$$
1U1UU1
01U,1TUUY
,011y
lPlHl
T-T10
1]Y]U10T1
U00U1
lltllPt
UU9y\
]x1T1
]YT010
,L$HP
x0\yT1
0Q1P1
,T109U0
10,]0
UU1U11
1y0U]
00TP0
P(Q0-,1
10U0y
UU0U8
$$P$P
110Q1
0T100
1U9Yy]
1y1xU
1-01UT]
tlt$,
U01P,
1U01Q1T1U
QY0]Y]
01U1Y]
UU1L10y1
U1U1]U0
U0]U01U]U
\TTP0
UU8y10U9
TU\y]
$H$H,
$H$t(P1,$
,P10U1x1
T1]]U0-1U
x]yT9
T1YT]
yUT1y0
1xy-0P0
PL,$,
TT1U0
y1x]U0
U9U]y]U
UT11x
0UUT1x1T11
9UU1]Y
10Q1U]
1U1P1T
-1TT1
yY1x]
9y1TUT1
T1x1Y
$,t(t$,L
tLt$t
ptLH,HtL$P
}1y1UP
10y0-,-T
T1T11YU
]y0U1
U\y9U
10UTU\
UU,T,P
1U0U0y0T0T
0P0P,T1TU0
U\U11xU\]1
TT1T010
0-U0U
1U1U,1
xUT1T-
T-1y]
y\1(T0,
11U1U]
1Yy0y1U
1m,pPH
T,1T1
,T,0y
]xy\U1
UU0U01
T,TUU0U\
Ux110U
HH,$HPH
P11U01
UT1y1U9
T00-T
10U1T
$PHt$PH$
,H$HHl$
]y]U]]
-,-U0
1-U]U
]U0U8
1U0y09x
1Y1T]
H,H,H
\y9UUT
1\]U]
P0,-T
,-T1x,yH,
tPHHl
T1T1P
51T1U0
U9y10
YU\1U
00U01U
0100Uy01x0
y]1Y]H]H,
HH,$P$
H$H,H$H$,
]y-U]
11P1UP1T1Q
11T10
UUy11
]1x1T1
1U0UT]TU1T
10y0U0U,1T
UY1-001P1Q
(,11y
1Uxy0H]p$,
$tH$$
$P$Hpl
U00P1T
U1T1U10U
P$P,$,H$
9T1T1,
1\]y]y9
\U\U]
,H,$t$t
-$tL$,
Q10U\
x1y]01
]y011P
1T1T-1T
]Uy]]U
U01Q1
,U11U1P
Pt($P
PHPl,
1T]UTT
,1P1TU-
011y\U]T1Y
UY1UU0U
yT]U0
)-U-Yx0
P$yHt
-1U0UT1Y
0U10,U
01TUT11U
1U]y1
UT10UTU0U
TUy1T
1xtPx
LtHPt
]yPxyU,
U1-,-
0T0TUT\1Y1
y9U-U,1T]0
8T11T1
]U10yU]81
UY1P11T1U1
Y100y\
UY]]U
lltlP
1T]U0
U01x10,Q-
U11U]
1y1y1U0U,
0T1yT
UT11x1]1
]T10,T1P
UU0T]U
U1U1YT
U]y]y]]1]
10U-,
,LlH$t
1UTU1x1]]
01U01
]1YZ9y
U1y1y
UT1T1Py]
HHP$$
0U101
1U-U1
U1U0U0-0U1
]y\y]Y]y
Llt$L$
,H$,$t$
]UT1y0T91U
1x1T0
1T11y01
U0T1T
T1\U0y1T1,
]U]U10
)U1Y1
U8y010Q
1YU0U9
U]0U1
09YT]
y]yUT1T1y0
10Q]y
U-UYU01Q\
U101T
x10P1
-U0-0
UT]1TU
]U0UT
Y10y\
U00U,1,
0-,$,
0P,T-010U1
01T1U0U]
1TUU]0U]
1x1U01T1
U1T00UUY1
UTU10Q01U
1T,U]
,H$H,
U1TZ0]
0U0T1T11T
1x01U0U
U00U1U1]1
]U11U0
9T10U9UUT
1UYyy0
y0U]x
]yUYU
UY]UTU0y
1-01P1T10U
U1T1T]
0,00U
1U]]TU]Y
9x9y]
Y\Q]U11T1
TT10y08y0U
UU11T1
U1T1U
Q(U9T10]10
1]01T1
Y1U1U
1T1x9
UT1T1
0U1T1U110
]U]T]U
]1x9T9y
1x]U900U0
]1U10U0
1x11P
y8U1T]
(T1P11
U1T11TU
1U10U01x
PHlH$$P
11y9Y\U]
1U1P1P1
\UY10
U1P1T1U0
1T11T
1TUTU0
0y10P1T]Ty
0y01T
]U\T1x]
]U0UU1Y0U0
91T0P-
1U0U]T1T
1T10U1T
U10UTU1T1
T]x1yY9T]
1T1T1T
U,10-T1y
x$PH$t
$$H$$,
1Y-1Q01U01
0U1U\y
-T0U,U
0U91y0119T
1U01UT
yY0U0U9U
U1T11UT
1TUT-00
$lP(,
T]UY9y
0U0U0U0]10
yUT1T
UY19T
1U1]1U
0y9UT
U9T101UYTU
011T18
0]1TT
1U0y8U1T1U
-tTtLutQq
QxPuyPx\tP
P$$H,HHU
UU0y1T1]y0
0-T1T
x1T0U0
9T10U1x1
1T,U0U0
10Q,101T
-T10UTU0-0
U,U1U-
xyUy}\yy\
yUyyTx-
,L$$P$
,$H$b
U1T1U1
0U901U
1U01T1U
]0UT10U,P
U19y-
0UTU19
0U1U0
]U9T11
1U011U1
0U1T10U1P1
0U0U0U,U1-
0U1-1yUU0
t$lPl
101YU10
0U9U1Y
011U0
\1T1T1T
Y]UY99Y
1U10UUT1
U9P1x11
]Ty9T1TT01
T18U-0]
1U0Q00T1P
1T101U
Y1T]U9Y011
,-101T
0U1U1U0
11U01Y0T1
1T1U1T0
U]U]U]]
1]TyU
0U\10U
0U10U1T
]15P1\1UY1
00,0U1T
1,U,1T1U0Q
1P1T]
]U0U0
Y1U0T0y1,]
18y01U1y1
1T]U1
18U9T1
9y10UT
1T110U0T
y1UTUU
10110U1
,U-T0
U00U01x
TU]U01
0UU1T9-0
]0UUT9P1U1
0y8U11]1
]U\U\
0U1,01T
9Y0T1]T]
0UUT1T1
T1001T1x1P
10U-T1T10
0Q00Q
]]U1T1TUT
,11T1T10
U0U]T
-1Y1U8U1U
U1\10U1U\
1U10UT01T1
--1T1
01,1U0Q0-T
1P1,U00Q01
1T19y
1T1T1
9U10U10,U1
Q1,T-0
,Q0U01x11T
10yYU\UY1T
19UTU1
1y01U\U0
U011T1,1T1
0y0P1T01T-
TU00T0U0U1
T,P1Q1T1
U,0Q0yy
]U1]UU
UT-1x
U-U0U11T
001\U
1Y11y9yY
1U010U
U8y01P1U01
P0U1T10Q0
-,U11
0y9Y0x1UTU
]Y1y9U\U0U
11]1T1U810
U0U10U8
T1xU10U19]
]T1]01T18U
x91Y10
U0U9P1U1U]
U01U1P11T1
U]U\1U011T
1T1T1U0UU1
0UT]9
90U01U
9x1U110U01
y]0U0
0U1U1
0U01y
U011UY
1U1T1
1x1Y0U01T1
0x11T1
0UTU01T101
T,0U,
19T1Y
1U1U1
,1T00
1Y1UT]00
]UYy10U]x1
1U11P1
100U11T1x
1T1U0U\y81
x11T1T1P1P
UyTxUyx
PTyUxUyxU
UYUy]yUx
yyUyUY
UyUy,Mx
]UY1P10
11T1U0
1U8UY
1T11x-0U10
]U],110U10
U90U1T1T
1YTU0
U]UTU011U0
U]T-U0U01
01y0,-,U1T
11T]T110P1
,P0U0P1
TxyTx
U0U9y011
1T-0U010
1U1TU,0U1
T1yY-
9U10U0
1y9UT1
1T9U1x]U
10U1T
1U01UT
1T1U10UT11
T-1P,1U
P,,$P(,
tP,,P
UP,)T,Q0y-
y11U,
9x110
9U0U10]
01U10101x1
9T110T
U\10U1U0
110U0y
110T10U
1U0Y1T1
]T1T1TUT10
T1,T,T1,9T
1U,10P0x0U
-0T1,T1
010U01
0y0U1
Y10]0
0U1U0U1,U1
0U1]UT
1\U01x
1y8U-
1U1U01
U0U81P11T
y9Y11T10U
1x11U01
U01U0T1TUT
U]U1\U]U0U
1T1101,U,T
10U0U0,Q01
T1U0U0T1,T
-T1T1U9Hy\
]$tLt,PLP
xHTtt(P-t,
u(P$QP,uPH
-P-,L,M,$9
x1t,-Ux
1TUT]TZ1
]Y1Y1
9x1U8
1T510
Y1U1U0Q1T
1]]18
1U0U0-T
1T-1T1
19U01T1x1-
-00P,T10U1
01T1P1P0U1
0U,-,1T0-P
00,U,1P0T1
10U0yT1P]
9T]Q0U
1y1T11U9
T1Y0U10U0
1T-0-U0U
01T]U\
TU90y
1\1TU11YU0
T,-10U
]y1]0
0U0U10U0T
-T110U0-
Q,110T11T1
,QT,1PUQ
0P110y0HTU
1T1$9T1T
11]919
y8U\U
11T11
01T1]0Q919
y9Y,U19Y0U
01T110U011
U00PU,1T
00P1P
011,U
01T,U01P1
1T-0P
]U1T-0
1U0U01yY]
UX1T0
01U1x1U9
1UT1TU
U,U0,1P1
T1U9Y1y1
U01T1U,
9U0U10U09
1U101T1TUT
U1\1T1P11U
11U101U
0T1010U1T1
0U1T10Q,-
U0T0T-0U0
M001TPT9
1U0-1UTP
1P1,Q,T
0UT10U1T
0T1T11y,
T10UUT1T1U
U0U01U10
1U010U
01T1]1T
T1U8]y1U01
1T1]T
1T1U10UUT1
1x1\11T10U
10y9x1
1T1TUU0
U0U1P011
P10,1P1U
)T-0Q0-U
01T,UP1
1yTy1T1T1
UTU1y1H
T1T10y1YTU
]T]U01
UUT10U1Y1T
9]U9U\
UY1xU\U
1U]UU0
9x]1y0
8U10U
01Y1U1U011
T11x1T1T
T11T1U01T1
,1U0y0U101
T1U001Y101
T01P-
01Q1P01,x,
10T-0P0,1,
T,1101P1
U00T1T1TUU
0UUT9U1
1T1x1U
81U0U10U
1T1T]U0U10
1UY9x1T
1U1U1Y01Y9
TU0y0
0y01T
1U0y8y\U11
T90U01U0
U1T1U10UUT
10y0UTU
U010U01T1
T1TUUT11T1
T1T1T-1T01
,U0\1T0U-T
1U,0U00P1P
1U,T-P
U1x10U10
U0y1T0y
1T1y0T0
]T]U10y11U
TU0U1x10
U11Y11T
0U0U01y0U1
\U11U1T
1U0U01U1T1
1]011
010U01U0
101U,0U]TU
1y110U0]
11U0-
10T1T01T1T
1,1T,UT,U1
T0--0-
1P1P00T0y
0U01T-P0]x
10T1U01T11
U1T1T1
T1\y9
0QUx1
1T9x11
0U01T1U011
1T]UY]
1U11T,10
90UU8
0UY11T
UT1]1011
0U8UYT1U0U
Ty0]T1P01
T1,U,11
P1\11010U0
,U,Q,0Q--0
P1T0>
01T10U0
]y9U1T11
9U0U10
9T1U9T1Y09
U10y0U]
10UY11T110
U0U0U1101U
1UY1T1U
1\U0U
0U]1]
0U11T
01U0U0
U011U1U0T,
1T1U0U81U0
10U0U1T
01,U,T1P10
U10-Q,0,P-
01U01U010U
01T1P,
0U0UUT11x1
1U0]x
UT10U10U1x
Y1T1x9
UT]UT1U0U1
1UY0U
]-0U1y09
01T11UT
U01YUU1U1T
11U0U0U0U0
110U1,0U1,
U011x1U1Y9
1T10T1T01T
P,T10U
0U0P1T,U01
P1P-T-01U1
x1U01U0U1y
0,U0,0U10
1T1T110U
UT11x1]y
]UUT1T10U8
19y0]1
T9T]U
09U0T1T
01U010U1T0
U0U1U0U01U
0U01Ty1T01
1Q01T,
P1T1,T1P1,
1P01,T-0-0
10-0U,0UU0
,U,01T1UT1
T1P11T1P
0y0U0UT1T1
81TUT
1x1T1U0
1U8U0U0U
101U01Y
101YT1T
9y10U1UTy9
U8U18
1]U11T90
T1Y1U1T1T
01U0U01T
910U\U01U0
U01T11T10Q
0UU01T,U01
T1,1T0
Q101T-00U1
U10U0100
Q0U1P1
1U0,T
19UUY11UT
T11x10U1x1
]YU01U0UY1
11U10UT
1U11T
09TU01
U0U10y
1101U0101U
10U01U0UU0
0P110U,U0Q
,1U0U,1
T1P101T1
0P1T,U0U10
,TUP1T
18U]T
1U0y]
11U0U11TUT
1UT11
Y1T101
1\1Y1T
1T1U19
81\]1
1T1]1U1
10U1U1\1U
10]0110U10
U90T1Q0T1U
01U00
-01U0U0U01
-T1010U01Q
,-T,1P00U1
T10Q101P1P
10U01U10T1
-x1UT]
1y10UUT
UT1y0
1\10U0
110U0
1Y1TUYy8
1U1UTUU
1Y9U10]1
U91U1\
11T191U4
0P10U
01T100U110
U01T11U0U1
T1U0-1,0U1
T0-T00Q0T0
U0P1T1-T0T
,0U0P1P101
0P10U00U10
U,1T1]Ty
,,y18UU0
U81x9U
1T10U19Y
9y1]]9T110
4]Y1Y1Y1]
y8y1YU]]1
1U9Y0
01U1T1U1
x1UT1T
y10U0]0T0]
T19U0
UU10U1T1T
1T110U011T
1T1x11T-1P
U0,U10Q1
001T10U01U
1P00U10U0P
1U0U,
Y]T1y
P0U0y10y
T1T1T
T11x1T
1U8y1T10
01U]1T
10UY90
810U1T1]U8
]UUY1T1
10]010U\UT
99180
\]Y]U
001T1
T1y19T1TU1
1U0U01T11
01T1-0P1T0
-T10U1T,
U01P1T
0T,10
U0-1TUU1T1
0U00U]T1T
]\10y0
1T10UU
1T1U9
01T11]0
\U101\U
10U0U
1Yy10
8U9Y9
011T101]1T
T10U10y01x
11T11T1U
1T110U0U1T
101T1T1U0-
P01,U0Q11T
1U1U0U01U0
11x1T
]U1T]$
U0U9U
]]U1]1y
18U19T
010U91
10]1U1
1Y9Y01U0U0
U1\1U0U1T1
U01T10U0U0
1101P1-1T1
01,T1T0U01
T1T101T1
0U0U01T1P0
1y8UT1y
]U0U0
U0U1Y1Y1]Y
10U01T190y
]U19y9
1]1UY9UYY
1U8U1
]T9UTU0]0y
11]Y1U
1]01y9
\U09xU
9Y101
0U0]101U
10-y0
1U0y1UT11T
1T1P90U00U
0U0Q0,U0-1
T1U,1\1,11
0U1T10U0U0
]yUY]Y1T
1U\U]19
9U]TU
1Y9y8
1]1YU]
]TUT98]
U9Y1T
9Y1Y0y
1UU1x
1UUT9U0U1]
01T019UY1U
41T11T101T
1,U10U1T1T
11U0U1T,10
1T-T1T101T
1T10y]U010
U11T1
TU]09y90y
Y]81T
]y11Y
yY91T
UU9UY90U
0U81]
T1\U90y0
8U01T1YUT1
410TUU
0U01T10T-0
U110U01T11
U0U1U0-U10
U0U1T1U0U
1U10U1x10
U01T1
901YU
9x1]0]U
]YU0U9
UUT1U0
U0U0U1U0
1T1U11U10U
T1T1T1T10U
010U01T1
11y1010
90U11T90y9
1UUT]
Y1U]U
U]U1]
]]U]T91
UT9U81U]U1
0]10UU]0UU
1T1Y0U0
0x1TU11T1T
T1U0U0U0U9
1TU]11U]UY
U]]1Y
Uy]U9
9U]Y1
8y9U9
9U]9Y18y9
1Y]TU19UU1
1U10U90101
T1T]U0Y0U0
10UUT1
T1-10]1UT
U1901U1Y1Y
9Y1UY
\9]U]
]y91]]U
]U]1Yy8U]T
1\y10]U]
T]T18y1U1]
51T1T1
T1T01U109T
yx9U81
9x9U1
Y\]Y1Y
1y0U81
1T1011
T1]01x1T1
0]0U01]0U0
U01\11
T1U]1Y1x
T1x11YU
1T]Y1T
YUT]U
0]1\U
]U1y91
]y9Y19UY9
8UY1]10
]]y9U8y9
p344-2
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 2)
ftsTitle
Large hovercraft, such as this, are used to ferry passengers and cars over relatively short distances, such as across the English Channel.
Ships (2 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Passenger shipping
The growth of relatively cheap air travel has meant that virtually all long-distance passenger transport is now by air. After World War II a few large liners such as the Queen Elizabeth II were built, but as the greater speed and convenience of air travel became apparent, liners were either scrapped or converted to cruise ships or floating hotels. However, on shorter sea crossings, car and passenger ferries have expanded their activities to cope with the growth of demand for holidays abroad. Partly for economic reasons and partly in order to win customers, ferries have grown in size and speed, with particular attention being paid to on-board amenities and provision for fast boarding and unloading. The roll-on/roll-off design is now common. On some routes, the greater speed of the hovercraft has made it attractive to travelers.
With increasing leisure time, a demand has grown for sea cruises. Initially converted liners were used, but now most ships are specifically designed for the cruising trade. Visits are made to a number of ports where passengers can disembark for excursions to places of interest. Often the ship travels from port to port over night, so the passenger has the advantages of a traveling hotel without the need to pack and unpack. Larger cruise liners can carry some 3000 people in relative luxury and with all facilities - such as swimming pools and dance halls - on board.
Cross-Channel ferries provide a useful service, carrying vehicles as well as passengers. However, doubts about the safety of certain kinds of roll-on, roll-off ferries have been voiced, especially since the sinking of the Estonia in 1994.
Ships (3 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Cargo shipping
The rapid growth in demand for energy has meant that large volumes of oil need to be shipped around the world. To keep the price per ton of oil as low as possible, the size of tankers has grown dramatically. Whereas before 1956 there were no tankers larger than 50 000 tons, ships of 100 000 tons were built in the 1960s. There are now Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC) of between 200 000 to 400 000 tons and Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC) of more than 400 000 tons. To transport natural gas to where it is needed has led to the development of the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carrier.
While the extraction of gas and oil from shallow-water off-shore sites had long been carried out, the need for more oil caused oil companies to look further afield to deeper, more exposed areas, such as the North Sea In order to remain stationary while drilling, drilling ships with dynamic position control systems were required, as were saturated diving systems, production rigs and supply vessels of specialized design.
Bulk carriage of grain and metal ores was influenced by the need to keep transport as cheap as possible, with minimum manpower and minimum time in port. Bulk carriers therefore grew in the same way as tankers, and like them had machinery and accommodation aft with holds or tanks forward. Some large ships are designed to be able to take different cargoes (say oil or ore) on different occasions. Load distribution is then important to ensure that the strength limits of the hull are not exceeded.
Other cargoes carried in bulk bring their own problems. For instance, the bulk movement of cars has been facilitated by the use of roll-on/roll-off ships, a concept that has also found favor in large car ferries. For general cargoes, there is the same need to reduce time of loading and off-loading in order to maximize the use of the ships. This need led to the development of container ships, which carry a large number of 'standard' containers stacked in special holds. As with bulk carriers, the machinery and accommodation is grouped aft, with the hold forward. Special facilities are needed at the docks to load and unload, this being more economical than providing such facilities on each ship. The ship in this case is only one element in an integrated transport system. Containers can be loaded at the factory or source point and then carried by road and/or rail to the docks. Large ships, typically around 60 000 tons, carry the containers between major ports, where they are transferred to road, rail or to smaller vessels for transfer to smaller ports or to their final destination.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 1: DEVELOPMENT
* WEAPONRY
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
]11M81
9^9]Y
-::b9M
91Y11:-91
Y9U9y:1U9U
-]9-\
5])])-109
-0U91-
1>1]]U
-9^}b
^-U-11
bY]1U1
-9T9T
xTxPt
P)$0uPxt
0$0T,\t
lPxPxP
lPPP:PT
TPHUt1
-9-1-
y1Uby
91:y9
-1U111T
-9UY9
1U:-0-1
U]U11
-a$](1
1111U
9Q]-1
HH,x$tHP0l]yU
HPHHH
zx$$1
:]:U^
Q,p$,H
llllt$QPtl
yltTlP
U191]
9^1:19U:
U:191
:UaU:
919:U
]1^1^
yY1)y
y]19U:
y9-9U]
]:U:U
]y9Y9
U]0U1]
1\-]P
1^1^1^
^YbUb
9U1^1:
^9U:1:
]1:-911^
:Y:-1:
1]1ZU9
19:U:
:-:1:1
1^1]1
}9111
:Q:U:
:U:1^:
1y\TxyTy
xPxtlllxllllullP
]]]Y19
,U]yUt0
llllllllll
llllltl
TxTxT
xltlll
llllllPl
lllPpl
2^:Y:
yTTPtTtPptTt
ltllltl
lltllllllllllllll
lllllll
lllll
lltlllllllll
llllllllllltltl
lllllllllllll
lllllltllllllllltllll
lllll
llllllllttllll
lltlltl
lllll
lltltll
lPlllllll
lllllltltlllllllllllll
lllll
llltlllllll
Plllllll
lllllllll
llllPl
lllllllllltll
lllllllllll
llllltllllll
lllll
lllll
:^:Y9
lllllPlt
lPlll
^:Y:^
U:VY:
:^Y:V
:Y^Y:^
^::^:
:Y>Z^
Vb^b^
Vb^^:
>2:Y^:V
:Y:^2
:^:^:
2:Y:2
1:Q]-
1 Y:Y:
Bz 2b^
^^^^::
:^Z:^
:Z^b^^^
2:^2:
^^^::
^:^:^
::^:: V
f^^^:
Z:^^^
^::Z
fVb:^:
^2b^^:
:2^:Y^
^^::^
6:Y:^
^:^::
f^::^
^:^::
:^:^:
:^:^:
:::Y:2^
^^::^:
:^:^
:^Y:::
^:^:^:^
:^>z>
^bV:^
:^:^bV
^bV:^
V:V:Y
^:^^^
^^^:V
^Y::Y:
:^:2:
^2b^:^
::^:V:
^::::
>z:^:
:Z^:^
:^:^:
:::^^^:^:
:^::^^^::
:^:::
:V:2^
2>Vb::
:::^::
:^::^
:^^:^
^Z:^:
:^:^^
2>z>^
Vb^::
^::V:
:^9 :
:::^:
^^:::
:^>V^^:^:^
^2:^2
^:^::
^:^:^
:::^:
::Z::
Vb:^:
^:^bV
2Bz:^b
:Z^:^:^:
:V^^:
^:^::
::V:V
:Z^:Z:^:
f_^b^
:^::^::
:^bV:
::2^:
:^:^:
^Z>VB:^^Z^:
^:^2:
:^^^:
:^:^:^^:
ZbV:^:^:
^2Y:^
^::^:
:>^^2
^:b^V
V^^::
b^:V^
>z:^:
^::Z:
^:^::
::^:^^:
:2^:^
:2^:^:
^^:^:
::^2b
:^Z^^:^
:zBV:^
:^:^Z>
^Z^^^
:::Vb
bY>z
:2^f2:
^^2^:
V:V>^
:2^Y:
p344-4
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 4)
ftsTitle
The USS Carl Vinson. This nuclear-powered American carrier is here seen with F-14 Tomcats and an E-2 Hawkeye (to starboard) parked on the stern. The angled flight deck, arresting gear and four steam catapults facilitate the operation of high-performance aircraft with full supporting facilities on board.
Ships (4 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Warship defenses
The design of warships is dictated both by the need to carry out certain types of operation and by the need to counter the threat posed by an enemy. During World War II the pace of change accelerated and has continued to do so since. With developments in materials, electronics and computers, the growing complexity of the threats posed has been matched by the sophisticated means used to combat them.
One example is the threat posed by mines, which can be laid covertly, often before hostilities begin, to be activated at a later date. World War II saw the appearance of influence mines, which are triggered by the magnetic, acoustic and/or pressure 'signature' of the target. The result of the development of mines and homing weapons (such as missiles and torpedoes, which use similar sensor devices) is that great emphasis has been placed on reducing ship signatures and thus their susceptibility to attack. The radar reflection of modern warships is reduced in a variety of ways: special materials are used, and much attention is paid to shaping and to minimizing the above-water profile. The magnetic signature of a ship can be significantly reduced by degaussing, a process in which special equipment is used to produce an opposing magnetic field. The acoustic signature can be reduced by specially designed propulsion units and by isolating noise sources within the ship. Finally, the susceptibility to infrared detection can be decreased by reducing hot spots within the ship.
Special vessels have also been developed to hunt out mines that cannot be swept. The mines are then destroyed by charges placed close to them by small remotely operated vehicles. To ensure that the magnetic signature of mine-countermeasures vessels is minimized, their hulls are now made of glass-reinforced plastic.
As well as reducing signatures, other defenses include the use of jamming to confuse enemy detection or homing systems, the use of decoys to seduce homing weapons away from their target, and 'hard-kill' weapons to destroy the enemy weapon before impact.
It is not always possible to prevent weapon hits, and ships must be robust enough to withstand some damage and still remain effective fighting units. Various means of reducing vulnerability include protective plating against splinters, duplication of important systems, subdivision of the ship, and limiting the area of the ship over which a hit can put any particular system out of action.
Modern battle fleets
A modern battle fleet is provided with a 'layered' defense. Aircraft carriers can deploy early-warning aircraft and intercept enemy aircraft at a distance with their fighters. The introduction of take-off ramps, angled flight decks, steam catapults and deck landing aids have all helped the carrier to operate high-performance aircraft. Carriers, destroyers and frigates can also deploy helicopters to combat submarines at a distance. In effect, aircraft extend the eyes, ears and weapon radius of the fleet. The next layer of defense is provided by long-range missile systems that can defend a given area of sea. The inner ring is a self-defense capability provided by close-range weapons.
Modern fleets also need to be able to combine with land forces in amphibious operations. A variety of specialized ships have been developed for such operations. Small craft are used to land men, tanks and equipment on exposed beaches. Often the small craft are carried to the vicinity of the beach by mother ships, sometimes in the form of mobile floating docks. The need to support large fleets at great distances from base led to the 'fleet train', comprising tankers, supply ships and repair ships. Systems have been developed to enable solids and liquids to be transferred while the ships are moving.
Thus a modern navy is likely to comprise carriers, guided-missile ships of various sizes, mine-countermeasure ships, anti-submarine vessels, amphibious forces and support ships. All are provided with increasingly complex electronics, rely heavily on computer-based systems and require highly trained crews to operate them.
It is important that these very expensive ships are available for duty for as much of the time as possible. Special paint systems reduce the need to dock, while major items of equipment are replaced rather than repaired in situ. Thus the gas turbines in many modern warships are readily replaced through the associated ducting, while diesel engines, air-conditioning plants and pumps are provided with special removal routes.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 1: DEVELOPMENT
* WEAPONRY
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1y0]$
]U]8:9
005015\]1
-12U:
U:-]!
y01^9
::> >:
H$PP$P
t,L,t,t
]TUb0
]TxPTT
H:yTy
2^bTU
^ ?f?gb
H9T89\99
,(xT$,
p344-5
ftsTitleOverride
Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 5)
ftsTitle
The French nuclear submarine, Emeraude, can stay underwater for weeks at a time. Like other nuclear submarines, it uses the heat from its reactor to provide steam for propulsion and to generate electricity. Air for breathing is continuously purified by machinery, and the oxygen content is replenished from sea water.
Ships (5 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
SPECIAL SHIP TYPES
A number of special ship types have evolved either to meet a new demand or to utilize some advance in technology. Twin hulls provide a large deck area together with great stability. This is useful for helicopter operation, for towing a variety of hydrographic equipment, or as a base for operating small submersibles or diving bells. When a large part of the hull is kept well below the sea surface, the ship is known as a semi-submersible. Such vessels are much less affected by waves than conventional hulls and are therefore suitable for oil exploration. A variant of this, which is of interest in military and hydrographic fields, is the small waterplane area twin hull (SWATH) ship. The small waterplane means a much reduced response to surface waves and hence small ship motion.
The hydrofoil has been in existence for many years. It uses fins to create sufficient hydrodynamic lift to raise the hull clear of the water. Hydrofoils are suitable for small high-speed ferries, as they provide a comfortable ride in moderate sea conditions. The hovercraft is also used for ferries.
The hull is carried on an air cushion, and in some variants there are no elements of the ship in the water. Such craft can run over flat areas of land such as mud banks and beaches as easily as they can over water. In other variants the craft has sidewalls that remain partly submerged and an underwater propulsor. These are not amphibious.
SUBMARINES
The advent of space satellites means that an enemy is likely to know the disposition of all major surface units. This has increased the value of the submarine, which is much more difficult to detect. Nuclear power has enabled submarines to remain submerged for long periods, and, because of their low vulnerability, such vessels provide effective launch vehicles for nuclear missiles
The Stockton and Darlington Railway in use for the first time in 1825. Designed by George Stephenson, it was the first public railway to use steam locomotives and the first to carry both freight and passengers. Initially steam traction was used for goods trains only, but from 1830 the use of locomotives was extended to passenger services, which had previously been provided by carriages drawn along the tracks by horses.
Railways (1 of 5)
The ancient Babylonians and Greeks laid short lines of grooved stones, while in medieval Europe horse-drawn wagons running on wooden planks were occasionally used in mining. But railways as we know them resulted from the combination of two elements - mechanical traction, provided by the steam engine and the flanged metal wheel running on metal rails.
Being both a stimulus and a result of the Industrial Revolution, railways have had an enormous social and economic impact over the last 175 years. Although railways have provided a public service for most of their history, it was in fact from old horse-drawn industrial lines used in the British coal fields that the modern railway developed.
* ENGINES
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-11U1
1-11-
1U11-1
-1-11U
-1U1U
-1-11
--Y1U
1-11U
-1-11
--1U1
1-11--
11--1-
11-11
--11-1
1--1U1
1-1-1
-1-1-
p346-2
Railways (2 of 5)
The first steam railways
In 1812 steam locomotives began regular service in England on the industrial Middleton Railway near Leeds, and in 1814 the English engineer George Stephenson introduced his first steam locomotive at the Killingworth Colliery, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Stephenson went on to complete the Stockton & Darlington Railway, the first public steam line, in 1825. In 1830 the first intercity railway, the Liverpool & Manchester, was opened, and in the same year the initial length of the first US public steam line, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, was completed.
Many continental European countries built their first railways in the 1830s, often using Stephenson locomotives. Canada built a line in the same decade, but more distant parts of the British Empire waited longer, with Australia's first line opening in 1854, South Africa's in 1860, and New Zealand's in 1863.
In Europe and North America the great period of railway building was the second half of the 19th century. The peak British mileage of 32 908 km (20 449 mi) was reached in 1931, but 90% of that had been built before 1900. The US peak mileage was reached in 1916, at 408 762 km (254 000 mi). In developed countries competition from road transport has since caused many lines to close, but elsewhere in the world new railways are still being built.
Nationwide systems
Creating national railway networks requires substantial engineering works to overcome water or mountain barriers. In Britain the Severn Tunnel (1886) and Forth Bridge (1890) were two outstanding achievements. British engineers gave high priority to the avoidance of steep gradients, and therefore made great use of tunnels and viaducts. They often worked at the very limit of their technical knowledge - sometimes with catastrophic consequences, as when the Tay Bridge collapsed in a gale in 1879 while a train was crossing: all 73 passengers and the crew of 5 were drowned.
In North America the Rockies presented a difficult obstacle to several lines, including the first US transcontinental, the Union Pacific-Central Pacific line (1869) from Nebraska to California. The Canadian Pacific, Canada's first transcontinental (1887), running from Montreal to Vancouver, used a series of spiraling tunnels to cross the Rockies. Russia's Trans-Siberian (1904) from the Urals to the Pacific had to make an expensive detour to pass Lake Baikal, while the Trans-Australian Railway (1917) faced a problem of a different kind in the arid Nullarbor Plain, over which a dead straight line was driven for 478 km (297 mi).
Outside North America, most private railways were eventually taken into state ownership. In 1948 British Railways (later British Rail) took over the four big companies that had owned the British system since 1923.
* ENGINES
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Railways (page 2)
ftsTitle
-3 3-,4
-,4-3-
]^^]]^
wSwS}SwSwY
S}}wY
Yw}}S
wY}Yw
w}Yw}}Y}SY
SY}}w}Y}Yw
Y}}Y}}w
wY}YS
}w}}Yw
Y}Y}}wYw}}
w}}S}Y
S}Y}}wY}Yw
}w}}Y
wY}SY}}wYS
;_e;e_
}}S}Y
S}}w}YS
w}Y}w}Y
S}}Y}w
S}w}}Y}}w
Y}}Y}}w}Yw
Y}S}w}Sw
Y}w}}wY}YY
w}}w}Y
Y}Y}w}w}Y
wYwYw}w}}S
w}}wY
S}w}Y}}wYY
wYY}w}S}Y
w}}w}S}w}Y
}w}Y}w
S}Y}}Y
Y}w}S}w}SY
w}w}Yw
w}Yw}}S
S}}w}}Yw}Y
}}S}S}}w5
w}w}S
S}Y}w
Yw}S}wS
Y}w}w}Y
w}SY}w;
w}Y}S
Y}}w}S}S}Y
w}}YS
YwY}}w}SYw
Yw}S}}wYw}
S}S}w
S}S}w}}wY
wYw}}Y
Y}w}Yw}}wY
Y}S}YS}w
Y}wY}w}S}w
wYwY}Y}w}S
}}S}Y}wYw}
wS}}Y
}wY}w
w}wYw}}wY}
Y}}Y}w}Y
w}}YS}}w}S
wwSSwS}w
wSSwY
,,2,,
3V22W22,T
WW2W3V23
OO+O+O
eA;eA;;A;A
;;AA;A;
AA;AA;;
-33W^
^3^^
34343
A;;_;e;__e
X- 4W
5;;ee_
__e_e
;;A;;A
;eeAeAA
w}w}SwS}wS
SwSY}wSYw
YSYw}SYYwY
wYS}}S
SS}}SY}
w}}w}}S}}w
Yw}S}Y}wYS
S}SY}w}Y}
S}Y}w}SYwY
SYw}}S}wY
_A_;e;eA_e
eAee;eA_
_;;_e;;e;_
SY}}S|wYw
SY}}Y}S}Yw
S}S}Y
YS}S}w}SY}
S}Y}SY}w}Y
w}}S}}SYS
wYS}w
Y}Y}}w}Yw
SY}wY}Y}YS
wY}S}}w}S}
Yw}S}SY}}w
}}S}w}}YYS
wY}Y}w}Y}}
Y}w}SYS}Y}
}YS}w}
S}S}S}}
wYwY}w}w}Y
}w}S}S}Y}}
wYw}S}w}YS
YwY}}wY}YS
}}wYY}}YS}
Y}}w}
SY}}w}wYS}
w}}YS
SY}}wYwY
SYY}}wY}Y
YS}}wYwYSY
wYS}w}w}S}
S}}wY}Y}}w
SY}}wYw
wY}YS
SYS}w}wYSY
S}S}Y
SY}}wYwY}}
w}Y}S
S}}w}Yw
Y}S}}wY
S}Y}w}}YYw
SYw}w
S}wYS}}w}
Y}Y}w}wY
w}YS}}w}YS
S}w}w}S}Y}
}w}Y}S}w}S
YwYY}}wY}Y
}Y}}w}
S}}SY
Y}w}SYw}}w
wY}SYw}S}Y
S}S}w
S}w}S
Y}wYY}}YSY
}w}}wY
S}}SY
S/SS/S//
SY}Y}Y
wY}w}}w}S
SSY}w
S}w}S}
w}S}wY
wYS}}wYSS
S}}YS
SSY}}S
}S}}Yw}}S
SSYw}
S}}w}Y
}}w}w
w}Yw}}w}S}
w}}YS
wwYY}w
}S}YS}}SY
S}S}S}}wYY
SS}wS
/}w}SY}
wY}w}Sw
S}}w}wS
w}Yw}}w
YwYwY}wY}Y
}}S}}S
YwY}S
Sw}w}SS
}}w}}wY}w}
w}}S}w
S}}wS
SS/S/SS/
S}Y}S}S}wY
}SS}YS
wY}}S
S}}w}S}
wYwY}}w}S
S}YwS
w}S}}w}
S}S}Yw}wY}
}S}S}Y}w}S
Sw}Yw
SY}}wY
SY}w}S}}wY
w}}S}w}YS
S}}wS
SwSYS}
Y}}w}Y}SY
S}}Yw
wS}wSSYwS}
S}S}S
w}}wS
YSS/S/S/S
SS/S/YSS/5
YY/5}5
p346-3
Picture
Outline
ftsTitle
Railways (3 of 5)
Technical progress
Nineteenth-century innovations included automatic train brakes controlled from the locomotive and, in passenger service, corridor trains with toilet and dining facilities, steam heating, and electric lighting. Luxury trains, including sleeping cars with a high degree of personal service, have been successfully operated, mainly by the Pullman company in the USA and Wagons-Lits in Europe.
In the 20th century the steam locomotive was gradually replaced by electric and diesel traction. Electrification enabled trains to run more cheaply, more cleanly, and in practice more often, while the greater power of electric locomotives allowed heavier trains and higher speeds. Diesel traction was particularly advantageous on lines where traffic was not heavy enough to justify the cost of electrification.
To keep up with the image created by aircraft and racing cars, railways introduced streamlined trains - or 'streamliners' - in the 1930s, with trains such as the Silver Jubilee in England averaging 112 km/h (70 mph) or more. In the USA many of the streamliners were diesel-powered.
In some countries, including Britain but not the USA, freight traffic has diminished since the 1920s. Freight trains tended to become faster and more specialized. 'Piggyback' (road trailers carried on flatcars) and removable containers were widely used from the 1950s to combine the long-haul advantage of the train with the door-to-door advantage of the motor vehicle.
In 1964 high-speed trains, running on special track, appeared in Japan. The French TGV service between Paris and Lyon began in 1981, and has running speeds of up to 270 km/h (168 mph). In Britain the 200 km/h (125 mph) High-Speed Train (HST) differs from the Japanese and French examples in that it is diesel, not electric, and runs on existing track. Maglev (magnetic levitation) trains, which dispense with the steel rail and flanged wheel, became technically feasible in the 1970s, but seem unlikely (at least in the short term) to prove economic except for specialized short-haul transit.
Gauge
The gauge of a railway track - the distance between the two rails - is partly a matter of convention but can also be varied to suit particular purposes. The gauge used by Stephenson - 1435 mm (4 ft 8 1/2 in) - became known as standard gauge, and has been used for more than half of the railway track ever laid. The advantage of narrow gauge is that it is cheaper to build, especially in hilly terrain, and allows the use of smaller and lighter rolling stock, which is cheaper to operate. Broad gauge, on the other hand, is suitable for larger rolling stock and generally allows higher running speeds, because of greater lateral stability.
The inconvenience of different gauges is exemplified by Australia, where Victoria and South Australia chose 1600 mm (5 ft 3 in), Western Australia and Queensland 1067 mm (3 ft 6 in), and New South Wales standard gauge. These gauges are still in use, but the mainland state capitals now have standard-gauge connections. Sometimes, to accommodate trains of different gauges, a third rail is laid to create mixed gauge.
* ENGINES
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Railways (page 3)
,,2,2,
2V,2,V,V
V,2VV2V
WVWVVWVWV
X-''-'
-.Q.RR.--
-.'Q.-''.'
R-'-R
R-'-Q
'-'-(X
|R-''-R
-'.Q|
X(-'X
-'X|,S
uu|tu
RXQRRQ-Q.
..Q-RQ.R
.Q.R.R
tuQut
uutuuv
uututu
|QSSX
W|-XQ
{|SSRX
VV3VVW
;_;_;_
;;_;;_
{uutu
R-| S
2W]WW
W2W2W
2322W23223
2WW23VWW
]WW2,+;
|'XR!S
'SS.X
X--'R
-'--|
X-'-.|
X--'X
}W-.'--QQW
RQ-RQ
XRR-Q-RQ
2,,23
,W3VW3WVW3
WW]]W
W]WV2
wSwSS
^WX,;
Y}}w}}wY
w}Y}Y
wwS}wSwS}S
SS}wS}
SS}wwSwYSS
)SMSM
SSMSMSMSM_
)SMSMSMSS
MSMSMSMSM)
S}Y }
wYYwY
w}w}}w
W]W]W]]W
S}YwY}
MM)MM
}}wSS}Sww
SwSww}S
))M)M)M)/
p346-4
ftsTitleOverride
Railways (page 4)
ftsTitle
The Japanese bullet train. The Tokaido Shinkansen high-speed line, the first of the high-speed passenger trains, opened in 1964. On opening, it operated a regular service from Tokyo to Osaka at speeds over 160 km/h (100 mph). Other Shinkansen lines run services to major destinations all over Honshu and Kyushu.
Railways (4 of 5)
The impact of railways
Railways revolutionized economic and social life. They enabled industries to be located far from their fuel sources and to enjoy nationwide markets for their products. People could choose from a wider range of commodities and easily travel outside their own district for business and pleasure. The cheap mass movement of people and commodities that was now possible caught the popular imagination and encouraged new enterprise, thus changing static agrarian communities and nations into dynamic industrialized societies.
1804 Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) successfully operates his steam locomotive in South Wales.
1812 Matthew Murray (1765-1826) puts his steam cog locomotives into service at Middleton Colliery, Yorkshire.
1813 William Hedley (1779-1843) and Timothy Hackworth (1786-1850) build a smooth-wheeled steam locomotive for Wylam Colliery, Northumberland.
1814 George Stephenson (1781-1848) builds the Blecher, his first locomotive.
1827 Hackworth's Royal George is the first locomotive with six coupled wheels (to increase wheel-to-rail adhesion), and the first with cylinders driving direct to the wheels.
1829 At the Rainhill locomotive trials the Rocket, designed by Robert Stephenson (1803-59) and his father George, impresses the Liverpool & Manchester Railway management.
1897 The German Wilhelm Schmidt (1858-1924) introduces the first successful superheater, enhancing steam locomotive performance.
1900 Electrification of the Paris-Orluans line begins.
1913 A diesel rail car begins running successfully in Sweden.
1923 The American Locomotive Company introduces successful diesel-electric locomotives.
1932 The record-breaking diesel train Flying Hamburger begins running between Berlin and Hamburg.
1934 The Burlington Zephyr, the first diesel-electric streamliner, covers the 1626 km (1010 mi) from Denver to Chicago at an average speed of 125 km/h (77.6 mph).
1938 The British streamlined locomotive Mallard wins the all-time steam speed record by reaching 203 km/h (126 mph).
1958 A French electric locomotive reaches 331 km/h (206 mph).
1960 Regular mainline steam traction ends in the USA.
1968 Regular mainline steam traction ends in Britain.
1981 The French TGV reaches 380 km/h (236 mph) in trials.
FLOATING TRAINS
The friction between flanged metal wheels and steel track imposes an upper limit on the speeds that can be obtained by conventional trains. To overcome this barrier, experiments have been conducted with vehicles that are suspended over a guideway on a cushion' of air, but perhaps the most promising progress has been made with maglev (magnetic levitation) trains.
Maglev designs have been of two main types. The German Transrapid program has used an attractive' system, in which electromagnets in the wings of the train lie beneath the guideway and are drawn up towards the steel rail as the power is turned on. Meanwhile the Japanese have developed a repulsive' maglev, in which super conducting magnets in the guideway create a magnetic field of the same polarity as magnets set in the train itself; the train is thus levitated as the two fields repel one another.
* ENGINES
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1V:1:Y^VV^
:^1V^
12Vb1
1:11-
1U2]1
:2U2
U21V212^1-
1V12:2
Y:2:2^
U1-1-
22^2^
-:V^^
V:U21
2U:^2:
22^:
^:^:^
1-:-11
--1V:
11U2Y
U1-1-
-1-1-2
1V1U2U
2^ 2
11-1U
1V1^:2
1^2^^
-1-1V:
1U11-
-11-1
U1-1-
^:1V:22
:^^::
--1-1
:^:^2
-1-1-1-
1-1--1
^:--1
:^V-
:V1-11
11-1-
1-1--1
--1--1
1--11-
11-1-
1-1--
1-11-
--11-
-1U11U
-11--
-1-1-1-
-11U12
-1-1-
U2U1U
-1-1-
--1--1-
1-1--
1-1--
--^1V
--1-1
-11-1
-1-1-
1-1-1-1-
21U1Z
U112^
-11-121
-1--1-
^--1
-1-1-
bV5UY
:U2U1
1-1-1
1--1-1
1--1U1
-1-1-
U2--1-
1-1-11-
U1--U
011-1
U1-1U
11y--0
11-1-:-
1-11-
1-11-
--0-1-
-1-1U
^-1--
--Y1-
-1U11-
-1-1-11-11
1U1--1-1
11-11
1-1-11-11-
-1-11
V11V1V
-11-11V1
-11-1
U-1U11
U1U11
Y-11-Y
U11U-
1-11-
--1UZ
1-1--
-11U1
11-1-11U
-1-1--1
U1-1-
1U1U11
-11-1U
UTUyTy1P1T
^ ^
1--1-
:2^:^^
1U11
1:^1:
U2U21V12
$$,$$,($P$
,L-L,M$-LQ
QLyuUyyUy
11-1-
1yUy1y-UUQ
-u)tQ
11-1-1
--1-1
11-11
1-11U
-1--1-
-1--1
1-1--
-1^2^
-1-11
-T1(1
2V^ V
11U1--
21-11-
11-1-1
1U1U-
U11^1
11U^U
1)-11
1-1-]
1y1T1
-11-1-1
11:U1
-U1U1
U1U1U
11-21
U--11-
-]-1-
11-11
1U1U1
-11--1
U21-1
VYV21
-11212
1^221:1
V:U2:
U11--
11-1-1-
12U1-
-1-1-
-1-11-
1U11-
V:^1^2^^
::V2V
:2^2:
V:2:21^2
11-2
21V1V2
2^22V22
2 :;^:W
::;:2
: :
: 2 :;^^
: :_:
: ::
cB
; ?f_
; ? c
^ c:
: >
c : c
c c
:_ ; :;
^_c
c k c
c; ? c
c ?^c
U101U
:b : :
c ?_c
c c
1U1:U1V
c
c ; cgc
1:U^U
: b:
c ? c_c cC
cC ?
; c c
c c
c cgc
cgc
:_:;^;^;
^ b :
Y1VY1
cC ?
c^2 :_
c: : c
U:V:V2^
V:V:^:^
: :;
^ : :_bc:^
: :;c:; ?
;:;: : :_^
cV :_:_b_
::_b ;
c: _
^ k
: :c^b
: ;::^
: b: :
: ; c
c c
^;:^:_:
_:_:_:^:_:
:_b : b
c c
:_: :
^__b_b_ :
> ^ :^_b
: : ^^ :_
cf_
> ?
c k;
cgc
: :
k c c
c: cB ?
c^
: ^:
^2 ^ ^_
c c ?
c c
; _: ? b
b b
c kcg
c ? ;
^ : ^
_c^ c:
cC: :
c k ?
cg cC
c k
^ _b^
c k
cg c
c c
^c c
_: ; c :
b c
c > c c
: c
: ^^ :
: : :
cf_ ^^ >;
c > cC
c:^ :
; ^ B
cf? c c
^ _^ c
> c^
: >
b b c cf
b_
:^: :
^ b
;^ : :_>;
: : : :
; c
b ^ b
c c c
:_b:_:;
: : : ^
^;b^
: c:
:^_:_: ;
c:_^ ^b_
: b c
;^ ^ :
: :_:
_: c^ b
c c^c
:_: ;
:: :b
c: : ^ c
^^;:^
; :
; ?b
?_ c:
:_^ ;
;^c^: _ :
11-11
; : >
:_ : :
^cf : c
: b_b
^c:_:_
^; :;^;:
:: c
k k
cB
> :;
: : ;: ;
: ; :
c: ^ ?
;^ ; : :
_^bg:
: : c
? cg
; c
:;:^;
;b^c
: :;
c c
c: c :
^ ; : :
^ cf
? c c
c; ?
;:_^ :
; _^ :_;:;
:_ : _
_ _ : : :
_ c:
c c
c c :
b_ : ;:; ^
: ^ : :
c >
^; :
: ; : _c
k
: ^ :
^ c ^
^^ ?^
: :: ^_
c
c: :
c k
k k
k
;^_ : :
: b
:
k
c: : c:
g ^
k k
?^ > ^:
cf
b c c
c k
c k
c c
: :
cB c
k
k k c cC
^ :
c k
_ _ : :
k k
k k
k ?
k
k k
kcg
k
c c
^ ^ ;
k k c
k k
k c
cf c
c^;^c
c^cg :
; c
k k
c k c
cC
c k
;:_b_:^
;:_:_:
> ^ ;
b_c c ?
: : _>
:_:_:^_:
k cC
k kcg c
;:_:^^_::^
b:;^; :_:^
;:_:V^
_:^c
k k
:V::_2:^
:^2::^;:_^
c^ c bf
_b :_:
_::_:_: :
k k
V::^2:V:
;^_^: ;
^ > ^:
^ : :_:^;
::_:2^;:_;
::^;:
:;:: :;:^
k cC c
c cg
c k
k
c c
::V;:^;
^ b
:_::
:^;^;2^:^:
;:_:;^;: :
_:b;_:^ ;
c k k
k c c
c ? g
cC k
k
:V:2^:
;: :
: :_^ :
: ? : :_
: :_: :_::
_:^:;2c2_:
:^:_::
;: : :
cB
c ?
? C
c k c
k ?
^:;^2:V>^^
_b^;^: :
^_^;:^ :^:
^:_ ;; ^_;
;b: ; :
: : c
c c ?
k c
c ? c
c k k c
kcc
:2^;:_
;^;^;
^;^;:^^_;
;:_;b^ :
_: : 2
c c c
? cC c
? k c
;^;:^:_
: : : ^
: : : _b
c c c
2 : :_:
:^c:;^::
: :
c^c;
? k ?
? cgc?
^_: 2 >:
: : b
^;::_:_: _
:;: :_ :
::_: ? :
c :
? c
? cC? cC
c ? c
? ? c
;^: :^ ^ :
c c c _
: :; ;:^_^
: :_^
: b_: ; c
: ^ b_ c
c c : ^
_ _ >
c c cf
c k c
c
c cgc
? ?
_^ :
; ^ : ^ f
>_ : :_c^
: 2 :; :
:; : _: :
?: ; _b
? ?
? kc c
; ? ?
? c
; ccC ?
_ : : ^
? : : :
; c c
c c > c
f; _ _>
c;:c^_:_:
: ; ^?
c c c
c c c
^c ?g: ;
; : :
?^ : c :
c c
k? cC c
? ?gccg
cC ?
2:^;:
_: :^;:
_b ^_ bc^
_b _ >:
c^ c
c^ :
: ^ ? b c
: c :
? c
? c c c
? ??
;^:;: ;
: b^ ;
c _ c
c: ^c :__
^? :: :
c^c: ^_c :
; cB
c c^c: cf
; : c:
c c c c :
b :^ ?
: c c
? ? c?
c?C ; g
?g ?
:^:_:
_^^:_:_^ :
_ _ ;
c cf
^: :
c
> :
cg:
:: :
c c
cC ?
? ? ? c
? ? cC
cc c ? C
? cgc_ ?C
; ? C c C
? ; cC
2: :_c^
:: ^;
: : cf
> c
: ^ c_:
; ^ ;
: :: bc c
; : c cf
; ?g
? ? ? g?
c ?gc ?C
;? ?;
2^:V;^2:^2
^; ; ^
_c _c
_ b c c
b^
c : c
c cf
^ :_ b: ;
_ ^ :;^
cgc
? cC ? c
?_c ? ;
c ;? ? ?
^:7^;
2:^:2^ ^
: :_ ^bc^
^ c ?
c c
: cf c
> ? :
;> ^
^? c
? ? ? c
c ?
?? ?;
?C ? c C
::2^:V
:_b^;^;^
: ?: :
c cf
c_ : ^
; ^ :
: ;
? ?bg? c
c; ; ?
? C ? ?
;c ;
_ ?g?;?
6V:V:
_:_:_:
^ ?
cgccg ;
? ? c ? ?
c?C ? cC
? ; ;
; ;?_cc
cC; ?;
:2^2^
^2::;V
:^:;2:
_:^:;^:;^;
:: cfc
c c
cf
cc ?
c ; c
? ? ?g ?
cC; ;
; ?cC ?_
?cg?g;c?
^2V::VV
2^;^;^:V:2
:_2:V:^;^:
;^^;^:
^ ^ c
> cf
b c c
ccC ?
c ?_?g ??
;c ? ?
?? ; ; ?
; ;? ; ;
?C_ ;
V:V:2
2V:V:;:^;^
::^:_:^:;^
; ?
? ??C ?
; ? ?
c ? ?C?
; ?C
c C ? c
2^:V:
_:^2^:;
:_:_^^;^_^
:2:;^:^_b_
:^_ : ::
c c c
;? ?
;c ?C ;
;c; ?
; ?;
? ; ? ;? ?
;cc; ?_ ;c
:_:^_^;^
_:_:^:_:
c^ c c
c c
;cg c
? ?;
cC ?; ?
c ? c
; ; ?;
6V:;2^;2^;
:;^;^ :_:
? C; ?
c;
C ; cC
?_ ? ?
; ; ?;
c ?g?; ?
?_?cg
_?_ ;_?;
; ?C^
V::^;
:2^:_::_:^
;^c^?^:^ :
2 : :^c:
c ?
? cC ?
Cc ?? ;
?; ? ?
? ? ?
?C ? ?
b;c; ?;^c
^;^;2:^3
:^c^;
:; : : ^
; : :_^ :
? cC
_ ?_ C ?_
:? ?
?g ;
?_ ? ?_ ;
C ?_? ;?
?g; c: ?_
;c ; ?
:_:;:V:^;^
;>^ 2
;^^_:^;:
cC ?C ;?
; _ ?C ??
? ?C
; ?cC ; ;
Cc cC ?
C ;? cC
?c_c:
? C
; ?_ ;cg_c
g: ?C
;^_^;^:;
; ::;^;::
_:^_^ :;
: ; b: :
: > ;
cC ?
; ? ?
?? _ ?cC
; ?c;
? : ? ^?
:^;^::;:^_
^:^2:_:^:V
:_: :_bV ?
^ _ _
^_^ :
c c
;c ? ?
c_ ?
ccC : ?_
; ;ccC :
? ;c_ccg;
c?;_c;
;?; ; ; ;
; ;_?;c ;
:_^;^:W::W
::_2^:;^^_
: : : : :
^; c
?C
? C; ?
cc; ?; ?
; ?_c ?
cC_ ? ;
:_?: ?
c : c ?
c ?
;?_
:_:2^::^;^
;^:;^:
_^ ^;
c _ : ^
c c
cc ;? ?
c ; ?
?g; ?
?_ c ; ; :
?; ?;
?cg; ?? ?^
?g; ? ?
:2^;:_2^^
::^:_^:__
: :
; ?Cc ?;
; >g ?; ?
; _ ;? ?_?
^ ;c?_; ;
^:V;:^
;^;:_:;^ :
c: :
: c b
b : :
^; : :
b ^ c
?_ ;? ;cg
; c; ?; ;
; ; ?
; ; ; ??_
? ?; ;_?
:ccgc ;c ;
: ; ?
2:^3^;^;
b^ ^;
^ ; :
; cC
?C ?
?: ? ?
c C ?
? ?C
; ;
:?gcC^? ?
2V:_:
?C ; ? ?
?gc:c
_c cB_c
; ; :
: c
?C_c_?
:c ; ^
^2:^:V
::2^;:;^ :
^_c^ c: :
>_ c^ ^ b
_ c c
? ?C ? ?
? ?^; ?:
? ?_c ;
:? ?;:cC
:; ;
;?g_c:?C
:3:V:;:;^;
^ ^
? ;
b^ _ :
c c
; ?_b
? ;
; C
cC ?
: ?g ;?_
;b c c;
C ;c ;>_;
:? ;c
^:W:^
: ^ c:
^ b :
_ ^ ^ :
: c: _b >_
> : c
? c;
cc ?C c
c : ;c
? ; ?
: ; ;c;?
? ; ?_ ?
?_: ;;
:;^;^
: :; :
c c
: >
c: ^
? ;
^ : _
: : : ?
cC ?
?; ?
: c cBcc;
:cg > c
? : c; :_
cg; ?_:c
:_:2_
:_^ _^
b c c
c b
^?:
^ : : c
; >_^ c^c
:_: ;
c c
c c
c c
? :
cC
__ : ?; ?
?; C ;c; :
:;^;^_^ :^
c :_
b_:^;
c^ ^ :^;
cf c
? c
: c c
? ?
? : c^?C
c? ;c:cg_?
2^;^;
;: ; c
c ^ b_
: :
: :_: ?:
_ ::^ ;
b c^c b^
c: ??:_;b_
;c_:?
:V:;^__: :
cf >
^ ; :_ ?:
::? :
^ _
b? :^ :
: ^ b
: ?C;?_:_>
:: ;:
^ c
c cf
c c:
: ; : :
^ :
? : ^
?_:_c^?^?:
2_:_ : : ^
b cf
^ c c
^ b : : ;
:_ : ^
: :c:
;;b :
^: : :
: :
_ : :
_ : ^>
: > ^ _>
c^
cg_:?^?;_c
_b_^ _^
b g b; > c
b c f
;?_?;_c
c : c^
c cf
c ^
c >_
^_ ?^?^;
^c: ^
?:_:;:c:
: : ?g:
_?_:_
p348-1
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 1)
ftsTitle
The British Aerospace Harrier is shown demonstrating its vertical take-off abilities. An extremely agile plane the Harrier excels in many aspects of modern Jet warfare.
Aircraft (1 of 12)
1. Development
Until the invention of the powered airplane, the only method of sustained ascending flight was by lighter-than-air aircraft - balloons and dirigibles. Balloons enabled pioneering aeronauts to undertake voyages across land and sea as early as 1784/5. By the middle of the next century, the dirigible (or airship) had arrived, bringing with it both a system of propulsion and a method of steering. The heyday of the airship came in the first three decades of the 20th century. During this time the airship was widely used in both commercial and military contexts. Its success was short-lived, however: hastened on by a series of horrific accidents, the eclipse of the airship by the airplane was complete by the late 1930s.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
NASA.tbk
fname
CaptionText
nasa.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"NASA"
defaultPage
fName
*.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
8"nasa.
= False
CaptionText
Harrier vertical take-off abilities
**++*
W]]W]]W]]W
]]W]W]W]
]W]W]]W
]]W]]W
]W]W]]W]]
]]W]W
]]W]]
W]]W]]W
W]]W]
]W]]W
W]W]W]W
W]]W]]W]]W
]W]W]]
]W]W]
]W]]W
W]W]W
]W]]W]W]W]
]]W]]W]W
W]]W]
W]]W]W]]W]
]W]W]
W]]W]]
]W]W]W
]]W]]
W]]W]]
]W]W]
]W]]W]]
^]W]]W]]W
]W]]W
]W]W]]
W]]W]]W]]W
]]W]]
]W]]W]]W
WW]W]]WW
W]W]]W]]W]
]]W]W
]W]]W]]
W]W]]W
W]W]]W]W
]WW]]
W]]W]
]]W]W
W]W]]W
]W]]W]]
W]]W]
W]]W]W]]
W]W]]W
W]]W]W]
]W]W]W
]]W]]W
]W]W]
]W]W]
]]W]]
W]]W]]W]
W]W]W]W]
W]W]]W
]W]]W
]]W]]W
W]W]]
]W]W]]
]]W]]
]WW]W
W]W]W
]W]WW
]W]W]
W]W]W
]W]W]
]W]W]
]W]W]
]]W]W
]W]W]
WVW]W
VW2WV2WVVW
VWVWV]
V]W]VW
V]VW2
VW2VV3VV2W
]W]]W]
V2VV,V
WV2V2
]22,2
2,2,V
WV]W]
W]W]]
]^VV]
V2VV2
V2V2W2V2
]W]W]
W]W]W
2VVW]W2
WWV]W]
]V2VV2V2
WV2WV
3VVW2W
]]VV3VW2
VWVWW]W
V2V2V2V
2V2V]
V2VWVWVWVW
2V2V2V
]WVV3VV3
V2WVV2W
]VWV2WV2
VV2VVW2W
]WV2V2V
2WVW]W
WVWVW
]22V2V3VWV
W2WV2WV
V2VV2W
WV2V2,
V2VV]W
WVV2V2V2V3
3VV2V3V,2
2V3VVWV2VV
3VW2VWV2WV
VWVV2
22VW]W
V2W2V2VW
2WVW2
V2WVWVV2V2
V22VV2
WVWV2
W2VW]
WWV2V2V
22WV22,2
2,2,,2
]V2V22
22V2V2
W2V2V2V
WW2V3
]WV2V
2,2,2,2,
,2,2,2W]
V2VV2
V2V2VVWV
WVV2W2VV2V
]]W]2V
VV2V2
V2V,V,V
3V22V22
]V,2,,2
W]WV2
+,1,+
]V2V2VW
,V,V2
2V,V2
WVWVWVW
,2V2V
W2WV2
WWV2VV
V,V2Q
,V2PV,
2,VVW
2W22,2
WVV22
22VWV
WVWVV]VV2
W2V3V2
]WW2W
,2,2,
WW2V2
VW22W2
WWV]VV
W2V3V2,22
VV2,2
WV2WV
2WV2V
22,V]
]VV2VWV,
VVWVV
2V2V2
2V2VV
2V2,2
2V2V2
VWV2VV
,,2VW
2VV,2
VVW22
V2V2V
VV2V,
2V2V2
VV2V2
VV2V2V
VVWVW
VWVWVW
W8W\]]2]
W\W\VW
V]VV\
VV\VV
V\WV]VW
\VV]V
3V\W\W
2WV]VWV
VV]VWV
VWVVWV
WVV3VV2
VV\VV
VVWVVW
2VV2VV2VV2
V2V2VV2V
2VV2V2
2V2V2V2VV2
VWVVW2VVW
2V2V2
2V2V2
V2VV2
3V2V3
2VV2VV2VV2
VV2V2V2V2
2V2V2VV2
2V2VV2V
V2V3V
2V2WV2VV2V
V2VV2
V2VV2
2V,2V22
V22V2
2VV2V2V2
2V2V2V2
2V22V2
2VV2VV2
2V2V2
2V2V2
2V22V22
2VV2VV2V2
p348-2
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 2)
ftsTitle
A hydrogen-filled balloon in flight. Before the advent of the dirigible, balloons were put to a number of useful purposes. The military used them during the American Civil War and World War I. Scientist V.F. Hess went 5000 m (about 3 mi) high in a balloon to prove the existence of cosmic rays.
Aircraft (2 of 12)
1. Development
Balloons and dirigibles
Although the principle of the hot-air balloon had been successfully demonstrated at the beginning of the 18th century, the experiments of the French pioneers Joseph (1740-1810) and Jacques-Etienne (1745-99) Montgolfier are better remembered, as they finally led to the first manned flight. Following successful experiments with unmanned hot-air balloons earlier in the same year, on 19 September 1783 the Montgolfier brothers launched a balloon that safely carried the first airborne passengers - a cock, a duck and a sheep. Less than a month later, on 15 October, Franaois Pilatre de Rozier became the first person to ascend in a balloon, using a tethered Montgolfier hot-air balloon.
On 21 November, with the Marquis d'Arlandes, de Rozier also made the first free balloon flight, remaining airborne over Paris for about 25 minutes. Only a few days were to pass, however, before Jacques Charles and one of the Robert brothers flew a distance of about 43 km(27 mi) in a hydrogen balloon.
The unpredictable nature of ballooning soon led to attempts to design dirigibles. Dirigibles are airships (powered lighter-than-air aircraft) that can be guided or steered. Before long, dirigibles moved away from the spherical envelope typical of balloons, and some were of rigid structure. The first manned and powered dirigible was demonstrated by the Frenchman Henri Giffard (1825-82) in 1852. Starting from Paris on 24 September, Giffard flew about 27 km (17 mi), his craft being driven forward at an average speed of just 8 km/h (5 mph).
A name closely associated with dirigibles is the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838-1917), whose first craft, the LZ 1, made its maiden ascent on 2 July 1900. Zeppelins built for the German army and navy were used with considerable effect in World War I, with Zeppelin raids over Great Britain beginning in January 1915. Before the outbreak of war Zeppelins had also been used for the world's first commercial passenger service.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
U1U9Y
:_^::
T1U11U]
U:1V9V:
-01T1
^-:^^
]UY1--1-
110-11
11U1UY
-]110
-]U1-
1-1-91U0
T11-Y
1U11Y
91--11-
1-1UY1
1^Y:Y
-11U19
21^12
T1U1--
:U2^1:
-1U-9U
Y1-11
:^^::
1-119
U91U1
1U9U1]1U
1U1U1
9U1U01
11]]U
-1b^_
-]-U1U1U
:U:1^
1-:^
5U91]1
:Y^:U
U21U1
:U1::^
-1-1-
^^:^^::
1-1-1-
U191U91
612^^
11]1]
1]1U1
U91]1
9U1U1
::UV:U
9U1U1
19^:^::
:^::2:
1V912
:^:^:
::^:^:
1U2Y:
2U:U:V
:Y:U:
12V::V:
-1U 2
_ ^^:
-9U11
::^::
:^:^::
^-1-:
-1U:1
1U1-1U
1--1y1
1y11U
Y1911
-191-
U1 Y1
1-11--11
9U19U9
,11-1
--1--
-1-11-
11U-1U
U11U1
1U11U1-1-
--11-
--0U0-
01-11U
-11U1
-YU-1
U-1-1
1U1U-
1T11U
1-1y1U
-11--
-1--0U
1-11-
-1UY1U
-11-UY
-1-1-
-11-1
U11U1
11-11-
-01-1-
1U1--
T11U1
-10-0
-1-1U
11-0U
1--01-
1-1-1
11-0-1
1y1UY11-1
-101U10-
11-1U
-1Y110U
1U101
1U1U1
y1UY1-
-10-1-1
-1U11UU-
1U1U11U
-11T1
1U1-Y1
11--10
-]U-Y
-Y1U1
11-1-
-11U1U
1y1-]
--1-01U
11T11
1U1YU
1-1YU
-0U11U11
11U1U
1y1Uy
-1-11
Y1U1-U
0-1Y11
-1-01
11U1y1
1U11Y
11--11T
--1-1
U11UU
11y11U
10U11U
1-1U1-11
--0U11UU
U11U1U
-0U1-
1y1U1U1-
-10U11U1
-0-1U
1U11-
11U1-1
-1-1-1-
1--1U1
-]U1U
-1Y11
UU11U1
11U1U1U
11U1-
-0110
y1--1
1--11U1U1
-1--1
1--011
11-1U
]y]1U
U11-1
11U--
-110-Y]
11-1-1-1
-1U11
11y1--Y-
UU1U]
1-01UY
UY]1101
1U01U1
Y1U1-01
011U--01
Z11-1
-01--
--11U1
11-1-
1--11
--Y1-1U1Y
-1U11
U1U1U
-1--11
-1U11-
U1U1U
U1-11
U11--
p348-3
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 3)
ftsTitle
The first powered and controlled flight by an airplane: Wilbur Wright looks on as Orville pilots Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on 17 December 1903.
Aircraft (3 of 12)
1. Development
The early years of the airplane
The American pioneers Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-1948) Wright were the first to conduct a sustained flight with a man-carrying, powered and controllable heavier-than-air aircraft. On 17 December 1903 Orville made the first historic flight in their airplane Flyer - although the flight lasted only 12 seconds and covered just 36 m (120 ft). Two other flights were made that day, the longer of the two lasting 59 seconds and covering 260 m (852 ft).
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-11--
11Y1-
1--11-
y1-1U
1--Y1-
-11--1
11U11
111-11-
11)111-
1Q1--
1111-
-Y1111--
1-Y1-1-
-Y1-1
U11U1
-1111
--1Y-1
1U11U
-Y1--
1-11-
---1111-
-Y1U1
--11-
11-111
11-11-
U-1UU-
11111-
1y1--1
11U11
-11-11
1-1y--1
-11-1UU
1U--1--
-U1Y-
11111
11-11
-11-1
111-11
1U11-
111U1U1-1
1U11-
1)0--11
-U1-UU-111-
1-11-11-
1-1U1U
1-11-
1UU-U
Y1U1-1
1U^U11
UU1-11U
-11-1-
1-1-1T1
1--1-1)
--11U
1--1--
1-11U-
-11-111
-11--YP
1U1-1
-111-
-11-1
11111
--Y1-
-1-y1
1-111-
11--1
1-111
-1U11-1--
-U-1Y1
1U1-11U
1y--,1
-1-11-1
-1-11U1U
1111111
1111y-
1--YU1U
1-1-U-
------
-1111
1-1U1
11U111y
-Y11-1
-111-
11--11
----0
1--111
-1-1--U
---1U1
U11U1
U-111
1U1-11
1]11-
Y1UY1-
11YU1
y-11U1U1
1--11
--11-
1-1---
111-1
111-1-1U-
0y-111-1
Y1-1-1111U
-1-11
-1UU-
YZ1-11-1U
-111-1-
U1-Y-1
1U11111
11--1
1-11-U1
-1--Y
-111-1-1-Y
1-1-11
-Y111
1-1-1U
U1-11
1-11-
1-11--1
1111-11-Y11
11--Y-
-11-111L11-1
11-11-1-1
1-1-1
1]M11-P
11U1U
1U11U11-
11U11
Y-111
1-1-1
1-1-1
-111-U
-11U1
1-y-1
1-11-
111-,
1-11-
Y111-
11Y1U
Q1-1y
1111U11
-11Y1-
U1111--
11Q11
1y1-1
1U1-Y-1
---1-1
1Y111
)-11U
111-1
-1---Y
1-U1-
111Y--
11-1-111-1
11-11-1
11111
U1-11
111--1
U11U11-
-111U11
11--11
11-1-
U11U1
11--1
-111U
--11U
1111-1-1
11-11
U11-Y
1-Y1-1
U11-1U
1Y1-1
11-Y111
-11U-1
-1y11
11-1-
1y1-1--1
111-1y1-1
--1-1U
-1-1Y-
---11--111
11-11-111
1-11U
---1-1
U1--11
111-1
1-11-
U1111
-11-U
-,111
-1-1-
--011
1-1U11
Y111---1
-1U11-U
111-111
-1-1--
111-1-
11--111
-Y1-11
-111-
-11----
-1--1y1
-U1-U1U
1--11
y1-1-1
--1U1y-
111-1
1--11
---T-
-111U
11Y-1U
11-11Q
1y1-1
111--
-1-1-
11U1-
111(1
-1111
^-1--
1-1-1
-1111
1-11U11
-11-111Z
1-1U11
1--111
U11U1
1-111-1
111-1-
1--1-
-1-1-1
11111
1-Y11U
11-11
-1U1-
-1-1-
1UU11
1-11-
1111U1-
1U1-1
U1U1-
1U1-Y
1-UU-
11U11
U111-111
-1-11
111-1
1U-1Y
1U-1-11
111-1
y1-Y1
U1U-1
U-11-Y
-11--
1U11U
y--1U1
U-1U11U
111--1
1-1Y11
1-1U1
-Y11-
1-111Z1
111-1Q
-1-1-
-111-1U
U]U11y
1-1-1-
1-11-
-1U1U
1-1--
1y1-1
111-111-
-Q1U1
1-111-
11U-1
Y-111
-1-11-
-1-11
11--1
1U1-]1
11--Y1
5--1-1---
1U1-1-
1-1y]1
-111U1
-1-1-11
-1U1-
-11U1
11111
1111U11U1
111UU-
1-11-
-U-1-
1111U
1y-11-,-1
1-11-
-11--
1-11-
-11---11U
P1-111
1U1--
y]1y1y--L
yUy1yU
Uy-1y-
11U-1-1y^M
UU1U]Q-y]Q1-1U
1y-U111y
Q111111
1111U11-
111--1Q
Y1-1Y
U11U11
1U1-11
1111--
-1-1U1U
-U1-1y
11U1-11
1-1Z11U1-
1-1U-
Y11-YUU1
1U11111
1U111
-1111-
1-Y11
U1111
Y--Y11
11y111
-Y1-1
1-1U11Z1
1111U1
U^U1U
U111-1U1-1
U1U111U
11--1
1-111
11111
U-11-YU-
-,1U11
11--1
0-1-1
1,11-y1
1-111-
1-111
--,11
-1-1U1
1111-
111-0U
Q1-1U
-111--
11-y1--1
111--
-1-11
1U--11
1)-1-
U1111
11111-
1-1--1
-11-1
11-11--
UUU111
1-111y11
-1U1-1U
U1U1111
1111--
11--Y
11-01
-11-1
-11U1-
1UU11-
1y1-U
Y--111
1Y111y
1111y1
5y1-1
11-1-
1111-
11,--
1-111-1
111-1
-YU-1
-1111
-111--U1-y-
U-1-1
--UU11
1-1-1
11-1Y
1-1U1-,
1Z]-11
]1-1-1
U1-1-1
-1-U-11y
1-1-Y
^--1-1
1U1U11U
-1111
-111-,
11-1y1-U1
1-11-1
1-11-
11Q1UUU1
11y1-
---1-1
-1111U1]
-11-1
11U1--
-111-1-1-
]--11-U-
1U111
1Y-1U--1U
1-Y11
1--Y1-
-Y1-1U
Y]-U1
1-11-1
1-U1-
--1-1-
11U-11
11-111
y11-1
-1-,11-
111U1
1-10--1
1U1-1
1-1111
U1]y)
---1-
-11-1
-111--
1--1U
-UU1UZ111
]111U
U-11-
-y1-UU
--11-1
P1-1y
1U^y11
1-1U1-1-
-YUU1
-1y1U
11-1-1
1-1-1-
Y111U111
-11--1-]U111U1
]1-1-
-1Y11
1--111--
-1--1
y1UU11U
1--11-U-
-1-111
1-1Q1
1Y1-11U
UU1UU11U
1-1U1U1-1
U1-1U--1
-1-11
1-U1-
1--1U1
1-111
U11-11
1U1U1
1UU11
YU--1U1
y-1U11y
1U1-11-1
1111-11-
U-111-11-1
y111U1y11
1y11]
1-1U-1
-1111-
U-111y
1-U111
U1-1111U)
1-1y1111-1
11-11y1-
1-1U1-1
-1-UU1
-Y11U-
111-111U
1---U
11-11
U1-11y
1-11U11
U1U]1
-11-^1
U-1U1
11UU11
--1U--1
1U1U1
-1U1-y-Y
1U111
-1UU1
1-1U1
1y1-1U
11-11
U1-11y1
1-1U11
11U11U
U1U-1
U11--
)Y1UU
y1-11U1
-1y1-1
U1y-1
1-1]U1
1U^U1
1-011-U-
1z11UY
U1U11U
p348-4
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 4)
ftsTitle
Charles Lindbergh, the first man to make a non-stop solo crossing of the Atlantic, alongside Spirit of St Louis. His historic flight lasted 33 hours 39 minutes from take-off on 20 May 1927.
Aircraft (4 of 12)
1. Development
From about 1906 the Wright brothers gradually began to lose their almost total dominance over all other pioneer aviators. Successful trials were conducted in Europe at this time, and on 25 July 1909 the Frenchman Louis Bluriot (1872-1936) became the first man to fly an airplane across the English Channel. In the same year the British Short brothers set up the first airplane production line, constructing six Wright Model As before going on to their own designs.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
U11-^U1
1UU1--
1U1-1
U1U]-
1U11U
1-U-11
-1U11U
-1-1U
1U1--
11-1-1-11
1U1-1
1-1y11
11U-1
U11-1-
U11y1U
1-1-U
1-11U1
1-1UU
-1U11
U11-1
-1U11
11-1-1-
U11U11
1y1-1
--11U
11--YU
-11U^
1-11U1
1--1-1
1U1U1
-11-1
11--1-1-
U11-1
U1-1-11
1-1-1-
-11-1
1y-1-1
-1-1-1UU
1-11--U
1-1--
1-11U
11-11
U1-1-
-11-1
11U1-
y1-1-
1-1U1
1-11-11
U11--
--11Q
UU11--
11--U
11--11
1--,U
1U1U1
11-1-
1UU-1
1-1--
11-1-1-
-1-1U11
11-1-11
1-1U1
1(11Q
-11U1
-11U1U-
1U1-1
-11-1T
11-1U
-11-11
1-1U11
-U1--1-11
1-1U-
11y11
(-1U--
1-1Q-
U1)U1
--11-
Q1Q0-
y1-1-1
-Y-1-
1-1U1y-
--U-1
1--11U-
--UU-
y11-1
1U11U
1-11-
--1y11
y11-11-
11-,1
1-UU-11U
1-11-
1U11-1
y11y1
1-11-
U11U^
11U11
U11y1
-1U11y1Uy-
1U)-1
1U1U1
U1--1
-1-11U
-11--
U11-1
1U11)
-11-1-11
Y--11
y1--11-
1-1-y
1-U1,11U
U1U11-Q
11-1--11
U-1-1
1-1U1
11-11-
11U-Uy
-11-1
11--U
11-11
1-1--
U1-1-UU
y-1-11M
11U11
11y11
1-11-
-1-1-1
-1-11-
-11-U
-11-U-1
1-11-1
11-1-
Q11)-1
--1U1
1-11y1-1
--11-1
1-1U1
-1--1
1-1--
-11-1
1-11-1
--1Q1
1-11-
U1-1-1-
1-1U1
1-11-
1)--1-
1y1-1
1-1-1y
11-1U1
1-U1-
UU-1UU1
1U1-1U
P-11-
-11-1-1-
-11--1
11-1-
1-1-1-
1-1U1U
-1)U11M
U1y--
U1-1-1-11
)11U1
-11-11
]11U1
1y11-1
-1-U-
p348-5
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 5)
ftsTitle
The German airship Hindenburg, engulfed in flames as it approaches its moorings at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on 6 May 1937: the age of large passenger-carrying airships was over.
Aircraft (5 of 12)
1. Development
Military developments
World War I witnessed massive aircraft construction programs. Although air- frame design improved during these years, the most significant advances were in speed, lifting capability, and reliability, due to greatly improved engines. Well into the 1930s, open-cockpit biplanes with wire-and-strut bracing remained the most common airplane design. The 1930s saw aircraft with cantilever monoplane wings begin to take over, often with enclosed cockpits, retractable under-carriages, all-metal construction and heavier armament. Speeds also increased dramatically.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
111]U
--111)U
111UU
y]-)y-
-1-1U1
11U1U1-9-1
-1-1Q1
11U11
YU11U
-111U1U
1----1
1-y11
1-1-1
-1]U--
-11y1
11-111-
111--
-1-1UV
-1U1Q
Y)UU1
1U^-]
11-]1
11-1U
11U11)-
-1-1-
1-UU11]1-
1-11--
-11-0111U
1U-Y11
1-1]1
----1
1)Y1T
--11-U
1U1-]
Y1-1-
11-1U0
U-0-1
-Y11-
111--
111Q1-1
-1U-U
--1U111
1y]y1
1-1--1
0-1-U1
1-U-1
1-11-
1-^1Q
1Q11-1-
Y--]U1y
1-1-1
-1-111
--1y1
--111
-1--1
1-11-1
-1111-11-
-1-YZ
y-Y1U
11U--
-11U1
111Q]M:,1
-111Z
11y111U
111U1
--11-
1Y111
U11U1
1-U111-
-11U-
--11-
1-1-1
-1-Y-
1-1U11
y111-
1-11-1
--Y1-1
U11-1
111--
11-U1-
11U-1
1-1U1-
1-11-
U--y1-
-1-111111
U-11U
11--1y
1U1-UU
0-11U
1-11-U
1-1y1UUU
-1-1-
11-1y1-1-
1111-
1U1111
-11U1U
11--1
11U^1
U11U1--
--1-1-
111-1-
111--
111y11
1-1U111
-11-1
11111-
-11-11
11y--U
111111-1
-1111
U1-11
1y1--1
1-1)UU
1-11-
11-1-
-]U11
]U11y1
1U11U1y
1-1-1
-1-1)-
1U1-1-Y
111-1-
11U11
-1---Y-1
-11U1
11111
11U11
111U111
11-y1
U11Y11
-11-1
1-U-1
U-1111
-1U1-
11-11111
--1--
1U1111
1-111)
1111-1
)U11--1
11y-U
1-11U
11YU-
1-U1--11-1
11U1-
11U11
-1-11
U1--11
11-11-1-1-
11-1-1
1y11-
11-1U
1U1U-11
11--1111y1
11---Y11-
U1U11
)Y1-111
1111--
1-1y-1
11-11---11Q
-1y1-
U1111
U11-1
1111U1
11-11
U-1-1
-11-Y1
11y11U
-]U-1
11-1y
U1-1-
11Y---
-11--
-1111
-11U1
-11-0
11y1-
U1-11-11
--1U-
11-11
UUU11
--1-1-
11--111
-y1-11
y11U1---1-
1U--,-
-1U-1U1
11111
UUZU1-1
-111111U
-11-1
1-Y11
111-1-1y--11-1
--111
-U111
U111-
11-11--
1--1y1
111-1
111-111
-1----
11-1y
-11-11y
1-11M
11---
1-U-1-U1
11y--^-
--111
-1-11y
1-1-U
-,1UU
1M1Y-1
U1U-1
--11-1
--111
-1-11Q
-111-
-Y1-1-1--U-1
-Y11U
U1--1-1
-1-11Q
-1y-1
---1]
1-1y11
1-Y-,
-1111y
-1Y1y-1
U-,-1
--11-
11(-1
-111-
-1-11-
1--Y1
1-1UU
-1)11U
--111
U-111
1-UUZ
11111
p348-6
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 6)
ftsTitle
The Boeing Model 247, first flown in 1933, heralded the age of the modern airliner. The 247 was the first all-metal monoplane airliner with cantilever low-mounted wings and retractable undercarriage.
Aircraft (6 of 12)
1. Development
In 1944 Britain and Germany pioneered the introduction of gas-turbine engines (turbojets) to warplanes, with the Gloster Meteor and Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighters respectively. Although only slightly faster than piston-engined fighter planes at higher altitudes, the new jets were about 160 km/h (100 mph) faster at sea level. During the 1950s piston-engined warplanes were almost completely replaced by those powered by turbojets.
On 14 October 1947 the American Bell X-1 research aircraft flown by Captain Charles ('Chuck') Yeager became the first aircraft to fly faster than the speed of sound. The North American F-100 Super Sabre fighter introduced sustained supersonic capability in level flight to production aircraft during the 1950s. On 18 January 1957 three US Air Force eight-engined Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers completed the first ever non-stop round-the-world flight, giving a vivid demonstration that any target in the world was now within the range of nuclear or conventional weapons. The greatest advances since the 1970s have been in the field of aircraft electronics (avionics) and in the use of light composite materials for airframes.
airframes.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
xP1tL
0UPU-p0,0P
TH,U0x
-0$1,
x$,xT
,(Px1,L$U,P
PT$00$1$\
x,T$1,T
U,T0-0,
T,8(UP\
-TTP0P1P,
H8$9TH
xPT,U,T,1P18t0
TP,$U
TQ(T,U
8Q$]$U,
$0,T$0$-
H1P0$U
,0H,P
P,P(PT
,P,T$0
P,T$1P0
H1P0$\$
P1P00P
P0P0P
TPT,L-$T
P0TPLTT
U,L1T1Q
,TPUxP
L,L-,P(
U,T,U
T,,1P
P(T,,
t00-,(
,t1P,
QLx,,,(PTP(
UP(0T,,Tx,
P(U,,M0,M
0Q0$1$
$0P0$0$
\$P$1,
1p,U,
-T,U,0-1
P1,T-P00
1T1,T
U0]T,
1HT,P
0H,L,-,
PU0P0P
P,,M,x,P
1,T$8$
T,0$U$,
0P9H8
8$8$]$],(P
(t,,P0$
T,U0t,
,U$x1
Q(P1P,
TP-,L
,0P0,t
,]PL1y,P
Px$1T$
]LTP1PL
t1T1T0P
TH,L,P0P0P
0P,T,
$9,8,$8$8
,T,L$T,]HP
TP$T,
,HP1P(
Q0,xPP,
$9$T$
P1,P(0P
t)P(,
,0P1P
xPp0$]
]P1P,L0P,L,0T0,T,\P
,x,U,
-1PTP
1,LTP
\H0,L
P(T,-L
0U,T,
x,UP0QT-x
0$U0P
xH0H,L,P)
,L$P8
P0HTP(T
,T0H8H
0P1$0P
0t)$,(
$0P1P(
-T(yP
PTP1P,U,T$T,x,L
L,(P,T$0t
T,L,,T,,(P
1T0P1
y,PPT,
P0P,L,t
(,,t$
P0HP$0H
-1x0-
0,1PL
L01P(0
$T$0H00P\p
\PT,L,$
-0P($
H,P1P
TP0$0P
L-L,U,T
PU,x1
,M,P(
T00P0
P0,P1T0t
1$0$1
,x0,Q
,L0-,,$
Q0P(P
Q(0T,-TtTP
t$1$8H
x,L,,L,P,(P,0t
PTP0t,L0T,P
1y,T1t
,P0P0P
1T,1P0P
H\$9,0U
PP0-0,1P0PT,(U
1P,-,
P1,(,
$1x,T
P1P1P
$1$0,
P1$T,T,L-t
$1$8t
$0QTu
U,T,(
$,,U,(
,p,P,L
L0T,0
0P9,T$
9l0HT,H
P)T,p
y,UH,0
Q1x,T$T-
1\$\$9$
P,$,P
P0P0$,
t1t,P0Q0x0
t0P1PL
H,0-P
T,L,T
1t(P1
P)0P,(Q
L,(P,,
T,-,(P
T,(,0TPT1P
P)0U,
,HT1xPL
tM0TPL
P1T0t
PT$8UH
,(,,],
L0$T,x
$T,9$
,(1\PH
P0$9L
T,PQ0$P-0]H
P9,TH
P)xP0Q(
H10P0H
$U,U,
-0P,,
U0t(8H9
P0t(Q(
L1,T,L
$0H8$,LP
U,L,$0P1
U,P0$]$
P-L0P(P
$0$P,
TPxt0
,L-T,,L
L,0-$0$0
T,0,(
T,MP0
T,L,T,
],(,T
T-T0P
P(-0tx-
P(-UP
$0tP0
P(P0$0P(
,U,0T,$
0P,0,U
(PT,PTP
U,L10
,L8PT
PU,TP
P0(-H
$0U,L,$
Tt0P1
,(P(P0
-1t0t,
LPT,]
$1$8$
P\H0H
P,L0,
$8$T$-T0T
TPP$0,
-,$$,
P9$0P,
$1$P,(
LP,$,
T1TP,P
$T$x00T$
P0-T,,
0P(P(
P(-,T
1P1T1$P
1P)P,
$0$0H
P($T-t,
L,T,x
L0P9P
P1P10
T,P,T
0u0,$0
0HUPU
T-L,U
,P,P0$T$
0,P0L:
t8$U$U,
P(T,$0$8$,
0,P(-
]l,M0,L,
1t-,0
P0,$0
PTP1P1P
,P1x0,
y,P0,
t(,-,L
,T,0$
P10P0P
-L0P0U
,U$T1$9l,
0Q,P)0P0H
$T,T,
0$0$1$
tT,T$P,0P
0H9$T
-P1,L0
)P,(,,
01$0U
,L0-L,P,
,P,L1x
L0$1P(T
P0-LT$
-,P,0QP
0P1-,(U
(P1-,
,L,L,P
Q(0\$
,P1P1
L0,\$
1,U1TQ0$
),P(P9H1t
H0t,$T
,(PUP)
T$0Q0H,
0$T$8$P
0P,x,
U0P1P0-
,-1T,0$PT,8t
,(P0$
0P0P1,
P(U0P
$0P0P$1,
(,,T,(
M,L0TP
1PUPU,
QT,U0x,0t
-1,L,
H1$]$,$1
L,L0$
yP]TT1t\1,-
U,L,,
U,U,,
U0P0$
H0H0P,
,a-xy1Tt
t0,1PL
(t9LUP
PT,T,$
\P0$U$
1,L0P1,
1Q0P11P0P)
,0$,P
QxUP]
TT,L,T,
-TT,,
q90u\Ut
P8yx0xQ,
0P1PLU,T
-x,T,T,
,(T1,1
0U-T-
tUU]y\P]U
xUP1tTt
L1PTu
$1P0P(T
L0,-H,
UPTQUt1xUx
0PUPTU0Q0P
P,9P0H
P0P0,U$0
,U,LP
,P0,0
T\y1TUU9
yUTUxy0UTx1T,T
T,p0P(
$0P1$0H9$
PL,1$
T0QUP
P)P0,1PU
x19t]p9P]y
T,x0T
y]Q0T,
,1$0t
P1L0$
0U,UT
-0P(,0
P9$]$1
9p,Q,TQT,T,x
1P9L0
P010T,T
9$1$]
(t(0U
,1P,(
1P,U0y,U
9PLT$1H1t)
-,y,L
]U8,U]$9$
P1],,
,0TT$
Q0Q,M
U,H9,9H
0$T-L0xU
(0t1,L
T-0-,T
U0-T1
-T1x,P-,L1
,U$0,,
,LT1y
P,$8$
H0Q8$0
1tL,-
P,T1T
PT](]
,L1T,
U,U0P9
PU,1LT,MT,U,),1t-,
TTP(,P(,P,
,LP1Q0
x,1H,T$
,0-0t
T-8x-T10-0PUP
\,pU,
1P9T1P
P0-Ty-
$-L1T,y
0t\$]
LQP0,
T0P0,
)t1H]P
TU-,T
0P,0U
$$0,UH
1P1,,
x1P,xU,
\u\U\PUt1xy
,0-,T,
L9P1P
P1,T$P
$T1U0y,TyP
u8u1t
T,,(x
0,U0T1,
,9P9P0
PU-]u
TUt0x-P
$9PT,
T,1-0,t
1UUyx1
P1P0-,
(0,T-
QTP0$T,0
TH0H8
LP1-\tT-0t1,x
,(T1T
0T\T,
)x0Q0Q1P
U,(-,1
U,T,T,
-1$](]$
$1$9L
LUt10
]x1P,1
P0-P-T,`H
TT0,1y
P1,y,
T-\%9P0,(P
$U$0t
,]$9,U,9
9P]x0
P0P--TT0Q0P
H1t0x
P]P1PTT0PT
x-T,U
TP,-,
tUT,9p]-8QTP
]H1P1
TyPT-
P]01x,)\T
YQ0Q]L9y
xPy8H]L
U,L,]
t,]10
,T,q\T
1P]P(-1y10-T,0P
p0P8TyUP]u1P9tU
]Ty8QT
9u0,-TP
$9PTP
1P,0x
TTP0,-\
,U,U8,
x1t1,
x0x$0,
Q]t18x10U,]x\y0U
PUH0$8
],T$y
U0UPU
-T,9p9
Py\xPT
1U]yT
101x-
1xTx-0x,U,LU,T
,1TUP
P0P0,
,P1,0
P1T1$0
$9,0T-,T,$],
x1xUxU
T9U0U,1P1UQ0
0Q0-],U0,y
u0-T,
L,T,L,
P)P(P
,0y,0P,M\$0U0,P
,x$1$
U,9x$1,x
$9P0-,-
UUUTU
UU0U\U10u8t1T1TUUTU,
x,U0y,
P($0U$
P(0U-
0U,T,T
U,(T]$
UPU,p,P1PU
tUU0y1
1l9(]-]l101
PUY1t9Q0T1Q(1P
P0P0,P1L1,
t,T,U,
,L,0P(
0t),T\L
]P]-0$
-]QTUU0y9x\Q0
p]P8T1x
P\p9P
1T0,(
L0P0T,L
Q0T,0
T$-T0
9P0PT$U,
H]y]x1
P)-(T
1y8U]t
t8q1-1xy1U\Q\-]u\q8QH1t0
(0Q0$
1Q8(-
0T10P
)x-T0yx
t119xP
]Uub1\l
,]]t1
--],]-
11UTyP9L]P
,]-]q\U1x\y
$0,U0TT,
-T0TPT0-\H
H8u0P0,0U,T
](T,1
(x1P0U,T
L,UTT0,
U10x0$
y1y0y\Q9(
x1U]t9MTQ9yTy
U1x11]]1Y
U0Q0P
,](P0PT
-TT,1
PT9P0x
119y\U9T
y1]UT1y1]0UxU
,]$,U
T0P0PT
T]x0t
-01P)
11Ty9U1
]Ty0-TUT]
,TH0P
P)xP,(P0x,
TP1PT
-TP1U,T
P1-T]P0
19x1t
,U0,-,9L1P0t)P0UT
yUT9U]x9
U]t]y1]
P0-0$1
T,U,T$0
0P0T,
,y,T1P(
(0U]t0
0H1LU,U,0
$P00U,
P9Q0-T-
-,9H1
1P0P-]
1]U]U
-8P0$
-T-0U,x1P
$1P\$
t0x,P,
T,y0TTT
U-0y,T,
UTPT$\
tU,]P$
9P9L,,
T0H,LU,T,P(
0P),x
190$9P1P9
T9P0U
1-]tU-8
00P0,0
P1Q]T$
0-0PU
U,1,-\L
xBy\u
ubx^b
9,1H18$
$1,0PUtP
P,U,0tL
-T0x,
tT,T,T,0P
$]P0P
)T0x1P
yat9]9ua1U]u9y
U]Q]U
m]P])UV8
,T0-9P
P]P0T,x9U
,x,M0
UPTU0
PUP)1TT
P(Q0Q,
t1x,L,
1y1y1]U1
9t9P9L9p
0yTU9Q]M8
U0UPTP
,T1P,x
TPL10,U0P1t
T0P1,
P,T,UP
t9L1P1-,U,P
TUt(-0t
0Q0TP
0P0TT
Uet>]]
UeqaU
xbQ`u9
9UTQ9y9p9PU
-U,\-x
L-T0P
x,-PL,
T0U0P
-0UP\
xPU,U
TP1TQT0QP1xTP
,y,T,PT
uaUaT1
bPbyta
T,U,T
1]T,P9
P]L0-T
UT0T1-0
0T,U1
QTT90Q0Q
U\P1U\u
UTt,1x-0
P],1$xU]
tau9y
:y91bx9Q1
T9y1T9Q0-]
0P(T,L1TUP
0x,)Tx,0$
$9P0H8U
T-P9,
T]L1T1Q,
0Q-,UPM,U-
P1,T,
1ay]1
aQ]U]y]y
y]-\T]L9,
$,TT0
T1T10TT
Ux1T0-T
,0PTT-9t
Tt-,1,L
9U]x9yUT]]UUU\
U0U0x
$1P0T
P0-,\P0
1,Tx-
x-Lx,
0U0T1PT
(y1:]
UT]yU
UU\,y0U1x,
P0t9(
TT],0
0,],8L1P9-P
Q0-UP-P
UP)P(,T,T,0P
PH,H,lt
9yby9u]
1T90y
t100U10U1-U1
P10P0
,T,0P
-,9L9t
,\T,9
P)-8\HP
1,U,1P,
-T,0P
P,$PlPl
Uby]U]
]U9x]T
UT1P]y
TU01T-]P
,],9L0P1
TUx1PT-
,)T,T,U
00P8LTP
t9T9L,-01T1x1,T,]
\,U0Q
t-0-Tt
-U,LT
1TTt0
9]^]y9
]]]Uy9
-9U\]U9)dL]U
y0UY,
P1-0P
0,M0t0
,](],\
110P9
-9u0P
19Q]Tau91
UTUU9xUP9
,TUP0P
1T0P$
10yy0y
-T-\,]
UT1TP
1P1P0P
,Ut1xx0
1P,x-L
$x$0l
1x9y1Q
y9T]Qa-9T]Q
]LAQ\
8l1P0P(
9P-,y
P)0x$,
P0P1,T$
TPU,U]
01,UTUP-,yt
Qy]T101U9t9P
1y1\UU8-\q
Y1P\Q9u
,1,TQ,
100P]
U0,x,-0
(x1QTy0y,Q
-yP10yP
1Q0,0Q,,P
P1,P,
u8-9y8-9,
1]1]Q
xTy-8UT
Q\-0UT
$],P0T
P1P0t1P
U,],T
T,y8U8-Tx
]x,-y0U,
-x101xU
-,0,](0
y]y]U
0]t9-]-
-1TUT1U,]PT1U
,0U0x
0-T011P
T1U0TT1,U,
P-L09
-P1P]t
,)T1P
HUx,x,
]T]U0
UxT11T1
T,1P\H
1,0P(T-,T
P1T-L0,
U,yU-(P
x1T9t1-\T
t1T1P0-
yU]x9yU]]U1U
19y9T]p1U0Ty
P1P9Q0,
],T,U,H
19y9y]
TU]-1xUU
UUTy8y8Q9y0
TU,\-
T,0P1xP(
QT0P1
P1P]P\
$0u0PtT-9t\P1-p
]Py,],T,
1\TU]
1\T]]Q9y9U
Ty1PT
l=Q]0
T]Q0T
LUP8L
$1$9H8
P]x1P0P
L1T,T-1
9(9(U,8
L]$](0
0-x0P
U,x,T
]Yx]U
]Q\1]UxU9
U]x9-
Qx9T]L]t]Tx-]P
UPaP9,
-]x,U,
U0\P9T
,U,U\u
Q8q9H]
]$]01T0P1PQ
1,T,U,(
Q^U]1]U19
]U\P9
TPQ0x0
0TuT,TTP
U0,1PU
P1P0,U
9$0,H
P]t1U
xP-UT
(1P]Q
(9u\]9x11Ty18Q]P9U0
x-Tx0P
0-1T,
1,x9P9t]-8
yt)-10xU
1TQT00P
T,M,T
-P]U,
=yaT91
,-L9x0
u9L9P
-11yx]T1
t9-y-
0]TP$9
,U,]T
U,yPU0Ux1x-
10TT,
1T1TUT,U0
x:yau=y
0yay9T
y1U8x
Q]0-Q,
y8]1yUUU
]U0Pt(P1\1P
P0,9(
9H010x$
11T0x1P
0UTx1
y0-1Tx1t
UTPy-x1P,-
UP9PPH
0U1xU]U
00VTy0T
]Q\9$
$]P1,
yUT1U0T1]-
TU0Tx,0U9,P
-1x0P1x
P1,1QT
-\U]-9y\
0]]y9UHH
Q8L8,$
]$8$]
$](T1t0
PL,10T,$
U\UUU
U,T1x1
1(U,U],T,
x]U]U]y09y1]UT
1Uy0TUx9\UH?
u8$1]
P]U0u
T]T\tT],
TUP0P9L9%
1T,$1P
19y9y]
\U]-]U9UT
-`P9-10P
P9$T1
0y,],]L
-y18]PU
T,1-t
$9P9,)],0P
P](81T1-1t
T0Q00P,
,\L1Q(1t
UyT,UTH
8p-]PTt
P-P]t
\uaPaPM
0,1T1
-0U,T,
x10x1y
t9t]Px
P0T1T$9P9p\
T0yT18t
1L0,9t0
UQ18$]P1
Q0P1,1TPU
Ubx]y
TUT]T,
(]x,U
Lep]$9
810PT
,U-8P
-aP=y]]T
P\L\p-
-11t1$
-TQ10
x1P]L01
UT]\0],p-P
P0$U00u0
U0P1T19
1,LTU
T1TT,
P1-1t,
P-L,y,T
x,P-0
H,L0t,L,
191y\y]x]Q`UTU]y\UT
U\U0P
P9P\L
,y0U,U-\P
UT,U$1-0U,P91,-L1T1-\x
T0Q,1P
PTT0,t
y9y9]\y2
P1PUH8
T1U01y0
UTTQUTU
u(UTy0
,y0U1T]P
y0U10-T
QTP10P
0U,9P0
1PPP1UTu
(P1t8-UTT
TU,T,
]]y9y
U1,U8L9
TUx1T
u8U0U0,
0UUx1P-
Qx,\u90Qx
,U00,
]y=U\
P]-\0Q9
1x10ytU,
1-x18xx0
0P]M1T,
y-T$0],0t
P1P0$
-]LU,y0U1P8$
8(9Q\-0]
P1-T1t8Q0Q
U,U,1
1tTP1P
P),P0
9UU]y8x
9P](],]81\
LU1P8
9H9P]t)P
P9t9(
P(],1
L0PP(,y,0t
U,UTy0P
]yAxH
1P0U9,U
0-x1P1H\
9PU1]HQ
P1x-T
t8U]t
t0]PU,
UTT9$9P8,
-U-x]P],
$U1U19P
0P1T1
1TTy1
-11u1
]y:]T
T]9T]Tx0U]P
-\-8L
-TT,](
T]Qy\-
yx]x0
Tt-,1x0t-
,L,x1,
]yY(x
TPx-,](y
]$],9t
0y8y1
(-0U,y,
UTU0PUP
1T00TU8U
T,9L0,
Q0t--\yx-
tU,Ut)P
)01T-P1xTT
t1P(-T,(U,L
P0$T,
x,0P0y,
T1x9P9-T10x0U0P-\T]T1U
QUx\U0t
8yPU1xUTQT
0U,11xP-
1(9t0$
taPT,,
1t01,
TUT1U]x
U0UPy0
,U00x
t9P0-,T,U
TP1-L,L
,]$0P
],,T-U,T
T,y-0$
]]au>19
1ax:y\U0U
0]0T0
TUUx1
0xU,U0TU
-TQ0,Q
-T,](]t
t0,1$0$1TH1
9,U0x,
P10PU
]y>xay
T,UUx1
TP0U\M
u\,]01x
yT1T1t)
H1P0-,xTT
U,y0P
T,9-00P9
](],U-\P01,y
TU\PUP
TUT-,T1T,-
,U0,t
t00U,,
V^z
9t0T1
UP1-1PT
8P]P0
1t1P1
1x9P1-,\(]
8-T11
p1x11x
-TP1P9t0
8L1\,TP
LTU-0t
-TT1t
M1P1TP
,T19U0]-9,](
T-9T1,P
TU0UP
PUT1U0xU,U,1PTQLU1x,
TP,,MT-1
U8tTQ00P
T,U0UP0
0P1T,
U\T10U
9p1P9Ly0
aP]0T]u
])0T-
xU,U-0x\P
-\PP],x,
P,U-LT
1P9Ly
TTU,-y01x,
U0,PL
],9p\T1
-8]]T
,-x9x1-0T
0QTy,-UTT0-x
1Tx1T0QT
,x,U0P
0y,L1x
TxTP,
P9p9,
P9xUx,U-TU0t
P9m\TU1,t10PUt
p11x,
PUPU9
,-UT1y-
P1P0,
-0$1T,
],]L9-at
0T-T,
9TTxP
t0U,],0
]x]]0
-x0U1x1-
0UP,0PTPU
U,q,U1,
,T1,0-T,
,],UTU
P1P00H9
],UH0P
\010t8,
,]1y0U0-\-\Q
U,yT1
T-11xTU,y0],x
,1)U0xPUP
x-0y,Q
,p0P1t,U0TH
1P1P]P9-,U
,0P01P9,0Q8
y0UT1,L,
(U0,0UTP9T]01T
]L1yUT1t0
y,-x0y0Q0-\UU
1UUT9P0P0U,
8U,x,
0PQ00Q0P]H
,x,x]
,Ut1-T,U
U,T]P0P
0]UT,
x0\,T0
TT,1T
0UPT9,U0Q0t-8-10
1x1TUP10-T\
-yP]T
90t111
1t0y,0t0U0H0
y-\Q01PUPU
y,1TTyPT
UPUT0xU
$10,UPx
\(U$8P,
10TUT]T-x1T,
-xT]UTU1]Qa-
y-]x1TP]01t1U1y,U9
1U]Uxy,]
x-0U1T0U-8
P0Q0T
,U01xU0
T,0T1x
,U1P,L1,
]xPU9
Ux1P9p
u8Q]UU]
peT,-1x-0y\u8PT
0t1-1xPT,
8-9P-,T0P
-0,10x
1P01,
9)8,]
]y\x90
Q\1T]P-,]P
T1U9U0
P]P]0
(t1T]L9t9x1
yyxy]y
-yUt10
P1Q\y8p0
x1t0H]P9L0,
P1,U010
-`Q\P
-0,],U1
P1T0-
T,-0-
U0P(P
yx1TTxTxP1PTH
t0UPU8yP]
\t9Q]T]
0x1U0tU
0PUQ8Q0T,T,](
--T1T
u0T,-
-\Q9p
0P,-0Tx,UP
P1T-01
\,T1x-
]x\y8
Ux9t0
01\P]P
y-,]L^-
tUU1x0-Q0t9L9$xPy]-]t8
PU0xT
\T9ly
0u0,T$
yTP0-
,M0U0u-0,U
Tt1T0x
010-10
-0P0P
T1,0,T
8U,](
(1Q8,
11t01
,U,]P0U
y]yx1
p0U,]L],
(y0xUT
t9xUU
-9y\U-
y01x1T1t1P
9P1t1P1(
],8)T1
Tt]-0
x,-T1T0QTU
u0,T1x
T0,U001T,x-
,T-010U0TU,
yTU0U
P9$1-0,0u0
t1TUtT
0T,1P
U,](\UP
,T1xTT,
\UU]P\
x0U0y0],
(91UT
9Q\yu\Q]p8$9U,0yTy
P\(y,y00TP
-U0U-0T9
y0T1PUT1PUP
0y,T-x0P0T
-,T,1y
1T]P00
T,8p9P
,9$9,
T-9HT
P9t0-
x0T0P
T-T1P1T
-\,1P9TUU0
-]P]P1T1xy0T9T
0yT1T11
U1,y0x1y,1
0QT01t0QTT
-9t1-0P
y1TTU
-00U,,
ty0T,M
](-01,x-0
T8$U0U00,T
y,U10
T]UU`-
-0U0PU-8uT,x9P1x]
UT,-9
UTTU0Q0u]-Tx,
TUT1TPU
Q0Q0,TP
TTT-01P0P1,
)x,8L
TTT1x0t
TTH](]$0%
H9T,UPU
,T1P0
0Q0],-x-x
u0U01u,U1T
U$9u1
U\P1T-
P\Uy-
t=0]UxZy\
p]T1TUT
1T-8TUU-0U01]T
]\U]-QP
T]QxU1y]t
UTUU1x
(y0-x
0xU-0P,1P0
9P1,xUP
x0P-P0
1U,U,1
x0U0t
]1xU0U0
x]-8,
t9T1\Pc
0Q$9)
L101t9TUx1Tx-0
0TQ\y0U
T-9x1x
y,x0]Y]tyx0y,1\UP
1T,1tU,,UPU9TP\
yTTP9p9,T
,U,U,U0TP
9,q10\-0
1T0P1
\H1P-0
0U,T0U,T,]P-UTP
TUx1T0x-T,x
0,U,0y,
T,UUT
L9P\-0UT,b
5x9y=Pax9u9x]
T9-0y0U8Q\U1yx1
0xTT-1x1T
x1T]T
y00,]-8py0TP
T]t10y
,],1x1QT-18l1-\t1,
x,010$,
UTT,U,U,](T
T--t9
1-0]PU
\PU10U]-TP
-1UTt1
P0-0$U
110-9P9p9
x9t]y,a-
U0UTU0Q,T9y]x10yy
y\U801
P1U]U0y
y\xy,1
,x11TPU
]H]1T,x
QH]P9$
L9P1P1
LT,9$
UTx--TP
T,U01T1
0y\,0U,
Tx0Q(
,T1x1\,U
,9P9xTP0P:
y\T]y]T]
T10x,10
]Q9y8
Ux9U0
y8u\Q8U
U]T1UP](
1x]tx
TPU-\Q(
H9H9$]
-t0\]$
x0P0Q
,U0P(
UTP,U
0Q01T
8t-P0
1-01x
P9p9-0
$]TTy
T]1y]U1H]
T]0y90
TU0x0P
P-LUU
,9x1x0U1U,
]9p9Q<u
P]q8y9
0UUT1x,T-
x]t1,]L\,19Q0u8-T-T
TUUx,\QT,U
T-0ux-0Ux-\1t0P1,])y0-0u(,
,]H9L
%\,9L
T111T
)-0t1,
UTx,-
0Q8-U
u\U\t9U
0])\p9Q
1P8H9M\P]P9
T]t9(
0U0UUy1P]L
]P0-TP1x1T$8P
t1T1t9P9P
P0Q00,
P1T10Q0UU
\PU-T-0tUT
T,1L0x1T
x--xT18tU
P0T1P
T01Q8T0P
U,UP]T
xTQ00
P\H],\
Q8P0,U,1U
M8P1xT
u\U9x]x]Q0
-tUU\,U
(9Q81
LbQ]M81yTyx11T
,9t9)],x
-]p9,y
t11]TU-8
0UU1x11y-T
x,U1T01P10xP
u0-1,
T0u8-U,
P10TTQ9xUP
000Qb
,]T\P
T]u`Q\
q9Pbu9]Px,
]yTUQ\L
P](U,0
1P)8t
1P1UPM]P1P
y0U10-,-,1
TU0U1P0y
0x0U0P1TQ
P0-0y-
TUU0T%
,U0U0y,
t](0,
x1PM8
P1T\t
P9pT-xTU\P
,Ut9t
x,-\,y
1y90y]u8y]yt$0
9TTTTU,\
-9xP]
,])91Y0
-\-\y
-T,\PU0TTU
01x0P
x]Q100t
,0UUT9x1-0xT--1xT-y
P1TUt10
0P1P)T
PU-8U
,UTP9x1
9l1P0
t90U,90UT
0y0-1
xx1T]x=t
y\1x>
U\]t91
M8u9x1Tax1
1U8P]P9
10y8-],
P]u\-
P0yxx
0U]tP
1p11U0
(TUT1
y01PUT1TUt1P(U0P11-
y80TPP
1t9M0x,U,
,U0U0
0Q8P9M8Q\1
T11P\L
,])]P
0UTT1
])\,y0P8P
x,]0UT-8u
x01U0
0UUT1\
T]0-b
U\TU0ta1
PTTP0P10yP]P9
1UTUUy8y9t
9Ut9x
,1UTy9
U0x9P,U]
U]T1T1
1,x-0
x1TUP1
,y18tTU
0P10--yT]L0
U9,U,x-
0Q10T18x0T
t0P1,
xU],]H1
Q\P1-x0-
x1T,0yx
\Qx10
PUUT0T0
0U0xT-0y8TUT1T]P
TyT,UY08u
TxTP1
xQbTl
],)T8
P]01uaP]
t]P9)
1U8Q\U0u\U\
9y]y,
QQ01Uxu
y\-L-1\MY11y8t)
t-1,T$]P
t8Q\Q0T
x00y-1T1
\,T,y
10m\-\)\P
0U-1x--1]x1
y08Q8(
0]UyP8)T1]0U0-
`u8T\$
x9yat9-\y8U0
P9q9U8t
U\1T1x1T]T]TU\T]x1
U0]Tx
1xy,]
y,U1\
-T,U0Q
P9p-,y
0U,U0P1-
T1-T]LT
,U10P
p9,9T
PTU0t
0-0yTy
UT-1T
y\P8p
1T1y0UUP9
P]T-T0
U`uU\1
1U\P9T9y0t9-19t]P9t]]0y,TUT,-1xt1y
110TU
UTx]T19
y0y9x
1Ux-x]T1yU
x]L1H1-
H1,11u]yTt9p1u1-\y\x-
L],](U10,-
]MTTTTP
]u8t0x-8t0
$\H1P1x,U0x%8Q8)]Px0
U,]P0Q1UTP
U0x,P1P
T-T]LUT
T]p9-TT-0T
,]PU0Q0,9P1T
8p9t9y00
P]9u`-
,1y91\
Ty0U0
0U1TTU]U0x0U0
U]y]t
U]]x10
1T]t9x]t1
\PU,y018p]
$T,10
,0P0-
-U8Q9p]
U,y0\UP
$]T-0
Ty0-8P9p
(T1P0U
-]018UU
1],U]T9t9P]P1UTT
Ty\UTT]x
1TTyTP
t1,x,x-
P]x]]-
(]Q\TUy
9xTQ\P
UT-1T0
,19,UP
-T1T,
T,Q9MaP
-\TxP
M\-81P
t9P1P
Q`Q8,U
Q\,P1t1
]PU01xT
PT,0Q\P0
-10x,
00x0UT0
1T1T9t1
,U,1x8tT
],9p]
9H9,](91
U]y\U]T
101\1T1y0U1
0UTUTT,
)y1y\y]P=t1x9
1Ux1yTy
Q\u9TTU0
x]Q\T$9l]
,-1TU
TUT\PU1
U,y11QT
-9M0-
,9P1UT
U,x-T,U
(1PTU
TU-9x-
\01P9x
9,]PU
\,9(yT
P1P8$90x]P
T9UT1
x]U1x]Q0
yTx1y-
1]U],U,
U\1xUQ9Q
P](T]PUT]t]UU
]P9y]1
9t]yau09u1P9t9-0uT1]1
Q9t]P9L,0P1P
1U8TQ
]LU,0y,
0T,,>
P]L9u9
0-T10P1
y09x-1U
-TT0U-
-0Q-TT,-
-0y,1P
1]xP]
0x1]PUP](9-\--
T9x0-,
,]0U\P1T
9,]9T]P8Q8-]T1
09x]x9x
\P]y\]L
x8^0]ta-\QU\1
t=,]T
t9y]y]1x1(
\UxU0Q:p9U0Q\y,](
yU-]x
10y01
T11Q1
y,M0u8(
$9xTU0U0TP1
0111PU
11P\t
1U0,1
y,U0]P]$](]0t:
18y1T1Q\P9p9L
xU-9P9P0,U(
1\U1TU
,PUxU\U
T\L]x
0Q\ta,aP]
U,T1t1P
1P9q\-]1
9P]p9P1
11y\U]t]T0t1
]M\U9t1x
u\Q0U,
1T1TP
T-11x,U
9TU\1
xUP0-0
xU]10y,U,-
T,1T1x9
,U,T-0U9y0T
P1x9y0
Q`I8,
1]0U-]xU\,
Uy01TTx
,9P]yTU01TT]1
TT$0H,
x]t9q\T]xU
u\U8L]T]]T
u]Q8tU
)\,Ux1\,811UTP
xU\-T01yTP
]UUT1Q1UT1T-\QT,
1T10Q9,]LU
QT-U0t-1x
$0-xU1P
x-0-1T0-
Ut0Q]P9](
xQ0y9PT-1Q
TT9x\Q
PaP]u=t
L018p]Q9L]Q(
]xQ`P]P
y:u81:x
U09y\
10y19xU
U,Q0Q\Q1
1x-10
-0x,U
18U0U
yy,U1PUT10]Y
1U\x1y,119x1
,]TT-\
P]M8t]
T1-0101T
x18T1-UTP
8-Q\0
t9TUT
0aP]x
yeP]p8(
]P\9t9L
,1T0P9t1P9x9
P\-]PUT1]U0y]y
091P1x:T]U09
P1y0UTUTU1x1U1UP
PUP01y1
Ux0-1x]u0y
0T1\]U1\UU0
\Tt81](
P1Q9U0x
P1P]P
U0u0-8UP
10P,T
LT,UT
yTU0U
0y1U\t
TTU\PUT18x0
-x,1U0U
]UPVf
T]p9P9y\-]UPaT1Qay
y1y11U
y\TUx11x11U
]101x,
YUTUU0UP
0U90yT11
0yTP1T11T,U
0t1]M
T0U0-T1x]t
yTTP1t0
0T,]T1H
P0U0P1P]
-PU-8L9
UP0P1y0
x-T-8T]P
10P-18Q1,
]UU,U9y
Q010\Q0
]T0-]U0
)x18P)
,a-]P
1y0UT]TyT
yx]T-L11
]p91UPUP]Uxy0
Q-1T1
\,xQ0Q,
1y01T0
Q0UP1U
t9t1T
9P9L1
q8P9(
t8(t]P
]Q0Q1
-8tU,1T1,U1-]x1U11T011T18t1
x0y8-
P]UP0-
P\1]0
P]T]0
xy9xx
]U1yy
y1xy1U
\xUT-1
t91T1P]P
-xT11,-,
x1U-y,-T-9L\
9l9P9TT-,x
],T-U\u
1y0xP
,1U0y0P1
,U1\U]H1]1
1]H1](8t:1
,y1\U],
],]LH
M]1\U
P-1yeM
1U0Q0U01UT
U\x81T]y\U]UVx
UxU0]t
9xUU0y8Q8q\1
-]y,])
-TQU\T1U
-UPU-\Q9P1
]0x11PU\19H
-9U11,]-8L0-0
x010y]
0P0,9QQ
t1T1UT
1,]P]L1P1y-]uT
-\0]-T
UTQ001T9t1
]x1UU0P1PTU
yPU11P
8U,1U01
(=]P]0]P]1]L
-\-]t
ay8U]1
UU9y\QaY
Q8yY-]U-8qU
L]1(1
x-0T]UT
,yT1P8(
1TUU0
-8P9P0
]L0],TP9(
01]-p9P]$
y10x0-0]P
y0U1P
TU0y1x
x,1yT1
y1T]T-
,UTT\p
PT19x1]1],]H1
(]-8)\P]-L]t1
9P],1UPaPT
00y,P,TP
x1y11]
u=yU0
yU]9P
LU1TUT
x9Q\1
9tat1
P0yUU,
]x,P1-,U9
Pat]P9
-0UTP9q90\PL
9l]L]P9H9x,UP1
-tP10y0-0,1QT
TPU,10U01QUy---
Q018UtU
U1TP0U1
x9(],],T
0yT9t9MdP
9P09P0-]M\-
U]T9T1
-8p9L9U]TUT1]T
,y,10T,
U,yy]x1U
U]\yaT9
)\TU-x
t=Qat91y]P9P
]1x1tat
yUT]U-y,](1P]P98t1-9t
0U0P1x-
0uTP0t
-9t1Q90P1Tx-1P9-
t(V-9Q\Q9L
,]x1T
Ma,\1Ty01P
P]101\UU01
-xx0U
,]011
P],=uy9U
-9x]t9T1U]TP0
x-TT]
\U8y0y
P9T\x11P
u8M\Q
,]LUU]-
yTU-]Q
uaxx1xT-1x
P9Py-8]P
-])T1U8y0
Ux1-0yTT1
UT11QUT
TaP8LU
1y\-0Q0
UT9M\Q0Q0U1UTU8
]p]11-0UTU
-1PT-
,y1xT
QTT0U1t0U]
-9L0yu1
,]0y-T
TP1Tal=P]ut
1x1\UTx-
1x9y9Q9-]x11xT
U,]19x
x1T9T
1U0U]T
-]]Md-9t
(U9y109t8-]
a1y]y0y]P9
9x9y0
0U101QPT-
U8yx0T
10T1]
,11t1
,L1P91
1-\P]T1t8,1U,U
y\t110y010-
UT]PU0]U\U
PU,9P]TU
U]t9L
P1-8p
]-]L9t9,1UUQ
UP],919P\$
1y1UU1U9-,U
],0T90]
P]\y9U1U
1U,x-1
10Q\(2
]x19t9yx1U-Ux11xy,1Ux
-Ux1yu,
y]u8UTQ00U1,TTT
U-]TT$T
P8Q1,
,]LU0T0P
PT1T]x
1T1P,y0x]xUP
119P]p0
-1u9q\
0TT]11
y9T]u\
T]t9PUT
0U01x
1x,]0
T1X]T1]1
U8xUT]x1U0
x1x9t9U10
PU0y]yataP
y90y-
,y]Q<t]L9l
PaT]Q0
0U]u91
1y]Uy9y]1Ux
0xU1U
xUT11
M1U0Ux1U0
q1PT$
1T1TU
UPP1U1
0x1UT
T19x-U0y
x0UUT10
P0tU-
,-`P]
x118yt9)9Q9p91-
TQ]H9-9,
tTU\U,
-8xU91T,
,y1]U
]P0TUTu
5yx0xTT]QL1U9x1P19P1TUT9
Q81]y
P]-\(
UxTy1
UT]xUP\tU0u0x11yT
]u]1xTUQ]T1T,1-
Q]]1\t
TxT1T1x0y11
9-]y0TU
1x1T01x1UU
U1UTP]P
x-M0]u
1yTUU1
P9M],]L
M]P9tUU0
t9Q8UUP1-8U,
]UU\x
9UxTQ
11xTy
]x-\1y9-\Q=xyTx
y]-\T
tata1
m=1U]
-]1xy]\Q\(y,
-\u91
x1,UT
y]y1U
Ty1T1UU
U-\]pUT1xU1]x1
P19t9p9QY1
,1](]
T\1xT]Q9U9yTQ
9x1T18
,9Q01ty0
x]U9T
yTy01T,(\Q
,9p]U0
UTu9,]L8u0
TTUP1
TU0yu0
]L]-9t]0Q\
8t1U0y\P1U,
u\U1]
0Q8yx$1T
1TQxPT1\U
U1T11
`u8M]x]
)\P]9
,a1xU
y-9tbybx
TT00Q9L
,]0x11T1
U\1U\
9\x9yT
xU1yT
-\y]L
9p9]U
8-]Py\
Ux1P]p9P8(]9t9
PTU1x]t
U0yPT-PU]]
\y,1T1TQ
U\y]09x0Q9PL
P9(9P,
,]1x,U0-
t9L9u\
Q]t](
U0TT-]-\U
U8UPy
0U1YU
x1U]\T1
11Q1U
x]-8Q
]1\U8Q81u
Qa,],
T]TU1x91x1
TU1TU
UU]UT
UyUU8
P1YyT
T1Uy0Q1
1\u9y
)tU1]y9QT
90Q]P1-]-
-]V]Q1U,,P
0y1],
U]0]\
1]8TU
U]x10]
t9U`xU\y
x]M9,
(9Q\U10yTU1
-TU1TTQ
P]1y1t9p]
t1Q0-9t1x
xUx-11
0U,UTU1x1x1
1U1T]u9L]TT
yTu`y8u9x
TU9Q0
<u1x1T
x1P1x1-0yU
UTUUUP9T9y8
1]y9yU
\u8P1-8u19y
TU-11U
1UTUU
9T1t-1
1T1,P9-]11
,U1]u
u,9x=
8M]TQ
U]-\(]P
1x9P](
9P]L9x1101x1x1U
-8,P1910],UT
)T11]
1U\Q00]TU
UP]P9q
,9y9Le
U81x1x
-]-\1x1,]U
Uax9U
8yT]10]t9x10xTUT-1
,]U11
1x\U1x]y
u9U\x1U1
u1:t9H1
U18x91x,
\H9P]MP]QT
y]y9]T
(UTU1x0
u9M\\PU0]T]P]L
P]-]u8L]U0
9P,]1
TUU\QT
x19x1
UU1P9901Ut
y0U-U1
,]0y1Q0y\y1y]U
0t9xU
Ty,8Q]P9M9
U8t]1x1
0U9yT19
9-\u8U9x
ayY9T]
T]01y\]PU
P]1T]u
\1\yu]p]U8tU
91y\y
u81t]
1T]u8P91
y8y\Q0U,
]p]y8Q\HU\1
1xUTUU
-]P9-
19p\1L9P]
]Q`10
xy10Q9t=P9t1]1a
1xU]Ty0
\Py0x]y,10U0UT1
y1-\U8y1T\x]P18TU
1x,UP
u\t9x1UTU9
PT-]U
(9t\Q
l]T9y0-
09x9Q80
-=tbT1U
,9U8q
11x9u
1x0]P1T09y,
-]1yU18y\u8Q
Q\U\yy\y
]P9-\]x
,y-\1
Q]-91p9u8-9M
-1x]P11u\UU,]1(U19
$91]T
9taQaQ8yQ8q8x1-1QUP9L
]P]P]
U11Ux111t]L
x-\yTyT1
1T]Q]L
x11U9T-]y0
(-T11p1
8x-,U,)\Q\(8-1-Tt-]
-]-aPy1TUUYT
,aUUU\u0
L91L\
Q9y9U
U1Q9]TP10UTU=-
1T-U1
L]\-\q8Qat\U]
Q]1x]U9u
0T]t]Q]1
U\P]-
1x0UPM8)
8U\x1
y0y1P1x0y1
]P],9p
x]-0UY18p
P]L9-
,U0]T\P9-9Qy9)
1]\(1
0UTU1U
)9u8U
P],1PU0
\t9H9
eQ0]Tx-],
at8L9x
91u1U]x]Q8-
1UTPyTy
P]y\x
xUt0-]
lay19yU0
UauYUY
9y]y91
1TUx1
10x14
UT9x1U0U
P9p9Q8M
U\Q9p]T]U
(]-8U1TU
P],y-8y0u1
1T9y]y11
U,y,U1,L1P
P]1x1101x
QL19x10t
q8H]-
P9y0-
,]t9L1
,U9taP1-9-T10
Q8-9U1
yx1\1
Y0]]1
,]T19U01TUx1
UUax9yeu8
P]9x]T9
T1U8x1],
t]xU9T
1YUT1
xU],11]T
1yUU19y
U\Q],-1T1
10Q,U09u1-\U]P-
U1YaP9p
-10y]T]P]Q9P901P1
T91T1]T]yx1T]
01,-1UU-1xx
]1U\10
,x1U109
)TUQ]L
UU8-\
U]x91x
]U]UT
\1]TU
xTU9UTUP91
U\Q]0
-T1TU^
P=yUxUx
H9T1Ux
taP9x]Q
(au8,
UU-9U
1U\y]x9y\
11Uy9
Uy0TUU1Q0]1Yy
0-\Ly
]00-\
xUT9x1TU
x1UT]1y0]0yt9
11xUU1x9,
u91]\u
]]L9(
t]-1P0-\UP1
1Ty1]TUU\-
18QTy0U19y\Q
19U9x
1]]TxU81
1y9U-0t90
u`Ual
x9yTx\1
]Q`t9)
]U8u]P9p
1\-1U
9q8U\u8]1
1y1xy8U1],a
11Q]TU
y]y0Q1
]u8M0
U-]-\U
U]Q\T9
UT0U1
]U]0Q1UU
8u0-8yP]19t9t9
1ux-\-
-8u9,
]y10uT-9M]PaP0]1
y0P9x1x-
19y1-
\U9U]xQT
Ux9P9y]0Q]]U]x
y1Y9x
T]y8U]
Q])9yQ
x9,U]
9]]xaU
U^UU1U9
Ty9yx1T1xx1TT
-8U]y0x1T,9L1-
T-19u
1U]T\
U\Ux18
1x1T]t
yT1yUUat
U1Ux1
P]U]P
19p01
y-90U
UTy\U]T9y9y8U]U1
1x-8uTP
1]U]U
]Ut=Pa1
T`u=-
:x]-]t9Q9xUT]U1
,9UT]0]P
T]UP1
y]TTu
Uy9yTU0
]y1P]t9M9t,
u9M\t
9t9y1,]1
TU9U\U9t9U0
y1xy91P
U8Q0]M
t0Q:-8uaP
1T9yT
Q]Ly-
xU1UTy8-1x1U
],]uy8
UPU1u
81U,]y`t
-aQ]-
1T9T]y
T9y0y1]x1
TU09x]U
yY]y]U]
x9Q\U1](
T-9t9)]0y1
t1T,U
UUy0U0yU
UUy0TUx1\xUx
T-UUx11]T]T
,\(9P
0]-T]
y8)yU
p]y9UTU1y0
u\UT-1
y9y\-
Q91T1]UU,
1\1UT]
-\y8y\Q18
UUyy9T],
P]]]]y0
xP]1xT
10x9xTU8y9-0]U
-x-]p9U1
M<u0]Q]P
M\U1-\U]T0T
UT1TUU]
0U0]1
P]-81U
0U]Q]-
p919Pp
uaQ`u1P1Q\
xUt9-
Q]-]x9PU\-\P0
18-y0
1T1]11y
1u,U1
U]Ux-U0UU]UT1]Tu
q9x-y]1U
1-8QaUbx]-a
P]U9Q8-9yYUyx9]-]-\P]1]\19yx190
}0x8y1\U
x1]y0U18
PUTT1
T]yUT11
,9UT1
9P>l]Q9
y1T]U]t9(U-
91y0UY]y8y
01xTT-^U]Tx
11x]19T1U-TU^Q
QT-]U\)\U0]P
,9-9u
19Q\-]L\1\
,]0yx8y,]x]P1
UU81y1]
90-0]U]1
y]T9x]P]U1
0UT]19y
x9Q`y
x]uat
x9P9y
y9-Ubx9U
y]\1T\U]1=y:,
9tay\
1T\)T1xUTTx1T9u0
-T1U8
0U\u9U
]UUU]
y\U]x9Uy
UaQ\-9x
u8uaQ
PTQ8M\
UTy9UP-9
0P]19T9t
1-0xy0
tUU9yU
y]U]x
U]P=u9y0T1
P]-=t1
t=y0-1
\x]T1
\U0t1-1
U]\u\U
yTy1110xQp
Q\q10U
P]qAL
U\QaP^
-]U]UU0
yT9u]T9u9,
U11U0UUT1
0]]x1\1
TT]y]U8yx19xy8y9y
-1t9M\198y
Y0x]U
1TUTUU\y1UTy]U,]T
UP91y9\1T11
x1x9yY1
0]9U\y]P
9t]Uuat9Lau
U]L]Q]yx]
\Q8)9u
9P1U\L9y9y9TUP19y]T
y0-1U101UP11
11U1-
]U\x11TyTQ8
x1]yx1
8U]-9L]]
9t]U9x
1]1TUayT]
U09yx9U1
y\y1]U\U0U]
0y9y\yy18Q01
1]U\May]U
1atbQ:
]t8y]U91
]Q10U]-
PU1U]t1\]1x-
yx1yT
x-U9t01
)8y1T
UP9u\)]U
1yy\U
Ty0y0U1
UU\U1]-
P=Q],U\]T-
1Q0U]-1x\-
1],1-
1]U]09u]
0y1T-
t=u]py9y]L:x90
]TTxQ]1
U]UU0
]yT99x1
yT\,1x
]uU0UT]M
\U]TUY1
,]La-]
U\yU]1
q`uay
Uy1Uat9]
1x19y
1yT]T
U9y01UQ
1]]P=y
-au]\1
9T\18
-=Q]1TQ
T-\1]T
Uy]Yx9
1TUy]UTy1T]y9U]
1T,-,
H1-1yU11
9q]1]0yY
U9xU-]
Q]1UUy9
Tb,9-\,
9ty,]
UbP]-aPU1
1]1]-]y
0]y9y01]
U]1\Ux
U01T1y1T
yT]0y8x9P00y0
u\U9y
0UTQ9y\y1T
1\1ta,
t9T19t9-eu]9\]U1
by\y]y
]T]y]P
0y]y]
1x-x1UU1]y1TU9
1y01x0Q\U9p]
t1T9UUP9y0
U]H9-
L]y81]T
0U1uaP
-9Pay1y
uaQaU01P
-1,^T
yTy91
UT1xU
TUT]U
0]1xTU\y9u
y1xau
)1]UxQ
0y]x1yUy]Q`Q
0y]T9y]y
y]U9x
81yU]1
UU0]U\0U\u<
9U\u8M
11TUTT1Q0y]T11
y]Q9L]Ux9T9y
yay]-
TU1UT
yx9U]x:y
Uy-9U1
y]xyUU
1\t11
1-9x\Q9P
l=QaPat9yUe
9y]-]
111\U
1Y9yy
u8U]T9t]x11y
]ataQ
,1T1],]]8T]-
QTU0]Q
)],x]T91\P
9ybxf
^Uy0U]]]]
uV9y]T]
0UT]U
U819U]xl9-
1>taQ]-9U
Ty1x1U9
0y9UUy9
]P]U9
TU0yU]Q
y]%8y-9
\y]y9
18-]91
T9Q\T9xy]\1
1]Ty-8Q:10
u9x]Q9x
Uey\U,
Q9-]x
]\u90U
-9u8M81P9U
Ut\-0-]u\
Q\y1T]]P](
P90UT19
Q9y9U
Tx-\U01
UU0y1\1
tT]Q9Q9U
-:pa1
1`y]y
Ty1\P]1
UT19x=0]Q
,]PaQ=tU]\]0
-8u1x1
1\]U91
P]U]P]u>
\1]x,91]U]y]
]1\U]1Y
1U\UTU1U]y]9y]\1
P]U0U])
],]LbQ
-]uau9
T]T]U1bQaua1
,aU8y
,U9-\1]-
u`Q8Q
Y9U]T]U\P1TU
0TUT1T\U8
\U9uY
\yt9-]-]Q]]U9U
x]1]U
UT9U]U8T
TuTU9
-9Q91y\
UUUU]y]U
Q]Ubt=
H=t9y
0U\y1T]
1=x9y0y
9x1Y1
T]0y0y1
x9y1]
(^1x]y\U9Q9y
1\-]u
TUY1y]yyT
,]QbP
]1]y]x10
UTy99
819U\]U
1]t91TU
19y]T
UU1UP9Pat9p]]1
-\U]1U]1]t]U0U
U1T]x1]
y0UTy0UUT-
U]-]u\-
t9q9TUU1\U
au8M8m]]1]
P-9y0U0
:x9x9Q8
P\]P:t9
x9UU1-]
U]-y]yY
-auaU9]]
19y9yfU]x
9-]xa]1
\U9x]T9
\y9TUT
]x11x
y]U9uaQ9UU-]U
ePbQ9P]y18-9U
yx]UU
y\]]y
1]y91
9tb19Q\y0U
9]xU]U]]
T^9y1U
Pb-1]]U1]y9
]Q\M\-1
9U8P]P1
y\1]U]T0
QT1U\yY
U8y-:1
p9U\t91
TU9y]x9Uax
-T]U0
y9y]y9
x919y
T]0UTy-
Pa11U
\u1-9t
]yTU11
1]yQ\1
\yu`U8u
1aUey
1TUUTU1x0x9U\yT-0x]T
9Tbx]]
1]-x]P=u9U]y\U\U1Yx
1]Ux1]
0UTU9xyeu]y8PbP1]
9u]T]y11
\y1yYy8
19x]y=y
x9x]x1T
Q\y]UT1
1]x]y]U
9y]UYy
y]U]xa^]
-aP]]
y9x]y]
U]M]1
1]y]y1
9y\y91
1]\t91
UU\U9y]]]
]y]y9y
]]x1TyQ
]Q=u]t
]y9y8y1x1]
U\y,]1
U]T1T
y90y1y
U]x]y
U\Ty]1
y1yU]
Uuau=U
U\y]-
at9t=Q<
9Uauay8yy1
Ux]]1
1y]y1x-9
9y]U8
Ueu\y
]YU]x
P1]uaua1
]]yY1a
]yTU]
taQ]y
]]T]U
y8-]y
M=u9u89U]P
a}]y]y
]U]1U1
t9y9Q
y\U]1]
U]1UY1
9x]x]U
y9U]y
}ayaU
U\UUbu
y8-ay\y
1y9u81
I\1U]
TUP]y
1]u\M]
,y=,9u
xfqeU
19x]x1\-
9y]y9U]yayY
0y9ya
>ua-]x
U\Uy19UU
Uy>uaQ>y
yauaP
-9y9y1
1U\y9y9
p348-7
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 7)
ftsTitle
The Hughes H4 Hercules, the largest flying boat ever built, with a wingspan of 97.54 m (320 ft). By the time of its first and only flight in November 1947, the age of the flying boat was virtually over.
Aircraft (7 of 12)
1. Development
Commercial flying
Passenger, mail and freight services by airlines began in earnest immediately after World War I, often using ex-military pilots and aircraft. At the same time, many hazardous long flights were undertaken to prove routes and sometimes to win prizes. The first non-stop flight across the Atlantic was made on 14-15 June 1919, by the Englishmen Captain John Alcock (1892-1919) and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown (1886-1948) in a Vickers Vimy bomber. It was not until 1927, however, that the first solo crossing was made.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
-1-$-
1-1--
U1-1Q1
1U11y
y:1-U
1U1U1
111-L:1-
-11-0
1-u11
1-b111
:111y
Y11)-9yU
Z11U1
-11M1
1-1--
-1-)-
-1-UY
-121x^
1-:TU
11---
-:QU]
TZ--U
-1--UU
1y11-
-1-1U
1-----
1:1--
UQ:-U
1]1UU
:yU^1
P1-11
^1y21y
1-11u
U-:xU:
-111y
U1-,-
QY:P1
-1U1-U11
1U--U
111y1
bU11-U-
1y1---
--111
11-$-
1-V^0
1-U:]y
-U1U]
1:-0Z-
-11U1
MyBzy
:QU^1
111U,1-
}1-1-
-1T^1U
2QY:1y
1U191
^UU1-y
UU1-]
1)U:y1
Z--U1
y1^yy
1UU1y
Q1^UU
UUz1y
^)-:--
xU9u1
-]^1-
1-1-,
-]1y1
1MU9u
1y1-0
:-,]:y
QU:UUV
1Q1U-
-U9Q1
-y:-,
U1--,U
11U1y
1-Y-U
y1U1y
-1]-U
^)-^1-
-1-1U
^U111
111-U
1)1-1
--Y:y-
1U^1y
11--1
1)--,
--1-,1
)-:Q-
--1-,
Q11--
Q-1-U
-11^]
$11x1
11-QU
-y1-V
---1y1
-U-,-
y 1--
-0-U1y
----1)
-^U--
-Y2UT
(1U1Q
1Q-1-U
Q-U1]
-11-1
$111Q1
,1U1y1
--111
1--,-
U1U-1
11---
1-1P)
1$-91Q
U1-1y1
1U-11
U111-
-11:10--111
--1--U
-1---
Q1U--
-Y--1
UU1-1
-1-1y
L11QU
-T1--
-1U1U
1$U:M-1
U1-,-
-y^1-1
--Y:y
1y--1
M11TU
--1y-
1-1z2
-2U2Q
U1-y1
1-11--1
1-1y1
111^,11
-1--1
1-U1U
1y1U]
-U-1-
U11-U
-1U1y
11--U
-UU-]
11U-U
1U--1
11-11-
L11Uy
Yy1-U
Q]^,1U
9y11-U
--1-1
^1)Y1-
11U1y2-
111y1U
uUb1y1
Uy:1y
1ZU-1
y111]1
1U--T
y]U$1U]
^yU11
-1^11
1-]z-Y
U^U1U
U]z-0
-Q1]-U
u9-1T
xy:-1Y
1yU11
-11Q-
9yU-1
1Q1^^UU
Y91y9
1y11U
^-T2-U
1y21U
1Q111y
-1U111
1-UU1Q
1y21]y1
9U^11
-119y
UUU11y1
1U^:]
2-1U-,
^UUBH
y^1,1
U11--
-:-Q-
1y11-
yy1U]
-,111
U-2]U
-1U1y
^U111
-,--Uy1--1
11--,11Q^U
--1-Q
H111y
1U11]z
:1yZ1y
1y1-0
QU1UQ
U:---
$-1-)1
111--
-Q-1-
---1y
21y1^,U
1y1U]
y1--^1)U
-1--Y
by-:U1
1(-:u
1--U--1
-$1]-
-y:Q^
U(y:y1u
-y21M
-y-9,
)YV,U
1-11yy
U-1^y
U-Y--$
-9---
byy 1
]1Q11
t]:P-11
1Q1U-
L1511
]UU11
U--U1
Q111y
YUZU]
9--by
p348-8
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 8)
ftsTitle
The Vought-Sikorsky VS-300, seen here piloted by designer Igor Sikorsky, was the first successful American helicopter. It made its maiden flight on 13 May 1940.
Aircraft (8 of 12)
1. Development
During the 1920s and 1930s large multi-engined flying boats were widely used for long-distance over-water services, but they rapidly declined with the development of long-range land planes just before and during World War II.
The Messerschmitt Me 262A-2a jet fighter-bomber. The German Me 262 and the British Gloster Meteor ushered in the age of the turbojet in July 1944.
Aircraft (9 of 12)
1. Development
The first scheduled passenger flight by an airliner with a turboprop engine - the British Vickers Viscount -was made in 1950. Turbojet power came to commercial aviation two years later, with another British airliner, the de Havilland Comet. The first American turbojet-powered airliner was the larger and commercially more successful Boeing 707, which began airline operation in 1958 on the route between New York and Paris. The Anglo-French Concorde was the world's first supersonic airliner, starting scheduled passenger flights in 1976.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
y::1-1
yUt1UU
1-y1-
]Q)11
1U]y-1
1y,yUu1
t),QUP-q,y
y-P)-
V:,M,
1:-1-U
1 ^
1-0--
:^:^:^:V:^
--Y]y
11-11-
-yUx$
11-Y-
1-1-1
1y--y
y11--
(Q),Q
--,1-
y1U11
TyUyU
1-1y-Y
p348-10
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 10)
ftsTitle
Prototype de Havilland Comet. The Comet introduced turbojet power to commercial aviation in 1952.
Aircraft (10 of 12)
1. Development
Vertical flight
In 1907 the French Breguet-Richet Gyroplane 1 became the first helicopter to lift a man from the ground. It was not until the 1930s, however, that fully successful helicopters appeared. The most important of these were the French Breguet-Dorand Gyroplane Laboratoire, the German Focke-Wulf Fw 61, and the American Vought-Sikorsky VS-300. All three could fly well but had very limited lifting capacity. However, both the German and American types led to the development of better machines, which saw limited service during World War II. Wide scale military use of helicopters was first seen in the early 1950s, during the Korean War.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
111-1
1-111-
-21111
11^21V21
--2--
U1-11
111121
^V1V1
1111V12-1
19-11
1111--
-1-11-
Q-1--
U1111
0---1111-
T1--1
-11-11
-U11R811
2-11V1
-1-1-1
2U111
1U1-11
U11)U
U11^:
11-91--111
1-11V
1-11-11
1U111V
11U1-
]111111
1U1U1
1U1U1
11V11
--1U-
1-1-11-1
11111
U1-1-1
-1-11
Q1-21
11U2-
--11Q--1
11-9-
V111-1
1-11-
1-1-1
-U1U1
12-1U1
11-111
]-11V1
11U:--
11--1111-
11U11
-11--
1U111
--U911
1111-
-1-)2
-1--1U
11U11
1111-
-1U111-
U21111
1-11111
111V1
--1-1
-1-1-
11-11
1--11-1
11--11-1
1-1)1
11-11-
-119-
11--11
]111-11
-1-11
11-1-
1--11
1-11V
1-1--
11---
-11--1
1-1-1
11---
--:M1
-1-1-
11111
1-11-
-1-1111
-11-111
-1--1
-1-11
-1---
1-1-1
-1-1-U
1111-
-1-1-
1--,-
U01,-1
---1-
1-U1-
-1--11
L,0t)
-1-Q1
-1-1-
0P,)T,T,T
0P,(P
M,,L,L,
$,L,U,$--
1-,,L-0T
1-11-
U1-21-
-11--1--1--1T-
P0,P0$,
$,-,$
L,,$P
-(P,PQ1P
-,---
L,T,p1,,T,P(
1-1--1
,TP,L,P(
1111-
MP(0P,U0,L
--1-1
-0-0U
(,L,T,H
$T,L0P
$-T,,L,L$,
,-11--
U1,1--
$,(-T,T$
1-,1-T
L1-(T$,(P,P(,U,-
P(-,P
10P,1P,
,Py,L,M$1P,
(-P(Q,$$
(P(-P
-0-,1
P-1T-
0Q(,$P,L-
P,$$,
M,TTPT,q
T0T,T
-1,U1
U--1-
-1---
P0P($-(P,UPUT,
,,,L,
p,L,Q(P,
)TTx-,T-T
x1T-,
Q(P(U$
y,U,0$,L
PT-P(T
-,-0-
P,($,
L,P$$$
P(,Q(
,P,L,$,
,01U,
L-P$0
U,L,-
,$,$,
MT0,$
0T1P01
-1---
H,$,L
(,,P(T,p,-L-,),,p
Q1-1-
--1-1
-1P1-
T--01
U1,-0P1P,LTP
T,,P(Q(-
$,LP(P$PL
L$0P(
(,L,(P(,0Q(1,Q,U,)P1$$,$,L,Q$
L,T-T,,T-P,L,
L1T0-T,
T0-0--
,($,,
,L,H,LPL
t)P-p1QPL,Q,(P$1P,0
$0-$Q
U0,T,Q
0t(PTP(
P-LQT
$,P0Q
$,LPPM,L,,P
P(P-P
---1-
,$,L,M
L-TQ0,L
(,P1,U$
H,P,$,L,H
,-Q1--
,q,L,$-L
P(Q,L-$,$
1--11P
$P-L,
,L0P(
P,M,1
--1-,
L,,P(,
--1----
$$,LPP(P
1----
1---------
L$,,L
,L,P,
(--10-
---1-
1--,-
--,-0
L$,)P
,P(,P(P($
$$P$(,L,
$,(P(
$P$H0
$P,L$P$
L,$,L$P
($,L,
P(P,(P
L,,L,
H,P$$
$$$$$,
$,($$
P$,$$
)Q-1%,
P,$,$P,L
$,$,$
,$,(P,$
(U0Q,(P0
(P,Q(-
$$,P(P,,$
,P(TP
(Q0x-UP$$
P(,P$$
,-,U,--
H,L,$
P,L,L$
1-,--
M10Q-
P1-,M1
$,$$,
---,---0
$1P(P(P(
,P(P,LP
P,,0,(
$-$$$
PTUTH
P(T0T
P,L$P$$,(
$,$$$$
$$$$,$
1(--,
P)P(,
,($,L,$x
TPTt(
,U,1-,-
$$,M,TUT
P0TPU1Q-P
PLH,L,P(t,$,
$$,$,($,$
$,T0-T--
,P1,p-0Q
PTUx1UP-,-T-
$T0xPp
,(,L,(
-,M,$P,$$
9t(Q(Q,P(x
11L-P
L,P,L,LPx
,,P(P,
$$$,$,$P$
,M,0Q,
PPT,1x
L0P,(x,P,,
,L01-,-1)Q
$0P(,T,x1,
P00T,P(P,
ptp,LPP($$P
-0-P1
)PTP(UUPL
,U-8Q0,P
0P(,p
P,1P0P
L],M,
T00T,0
-L,-0Q
$,(x,t10P(-
1x1,y
P(-0,
--)1,--,)
P,-0P1TU0u,Q,MTyx
P),0Q,0P-,0x\U,,
Q(1-,
-,(-Q
10Q-,-
P,1P,U,(
0TUQ0U
-,-,M
-0--Q(,-Q
x,p1PTT-(Q
xTQ01T-
P1P1-,)
T1P1,
t0,p-TTQ
x1,U0$-
-0P(---
,L,,1Py
U-,UTx01--0-,
,M-,-
U,(--
Q,--T
P(-$-0T
1Q(-P
y,xUPL
P(TPUP
UU,P)P
--,-L,10-,-,
P(Q(P
L-,1)P
P1)P1
P,1P0-0-
(U,xTQT-L,P,L-P0$
U,-01P00Q,1
yU,--P)
,,x)P,M,M,10Q($
`t1,-,)P
-,-,M
1,Q(-M(
P(T,P(T
x,0P1P
,1-,P
1P,-1,Q,
(,x,)P
,x0$0,P
,---0
0Q),U,,-P
P(,P0x
,T0P0U,
M,M,)Q
P1,M-P(U
T0,T1t,
M,,1(
(P10-P
Q,-,)P-L$1
$U,PUx,Q0P,
-),-(-
$(TTPTy,xTTT
Uy1-0
U,L-T-
L-L-,P(-
,P(Q-T$,Q
yQ]\y1
p-0-$,-,M,,
P,L--
P)P,Q
P,L-P
P),P-
]U-L,,
,),L-
$,)$$
M,1P)
P1P$-,U,1P
)P(Q$
(Q,QL-Q-,$-
--L-P
(,Q(I,
),,-,)
HP(,(
P,L,P)P,
Q,M-P)T
P$P$-
L-P(-L,
H,-$,
,P($-
$Q(,L
P$1P$-
P$P(P(
p348-11
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 11)
ftsTitle
British Aerospace Harrier GR. Mk 3 (top): the Harrier, entering service in 1969, was the first operational airplane with the capacity to take off and land vertically.
Aircraft (11 of 12)
1. Development
Many forms of vertical take-off airplane have been designed and tested over the decades of aviation history. The world's first operational V/STOL (vertical/short take-off and landing) airplane was the Harrier, first built by Hawker Siddeley (now part of British Aerospace), which entered service with the Royal Air Force in 1969. This uses the thrust-vectoring technique, in which the direction of the engine's thrust can be altered to provide power for vertical and horizontal flight.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
tLTP,L,
(x,(P,LH
$,x,L0,,P0
$y0PTx
,Lx,$,
$,P(P$
yP(P0tL,H0
L0P,,(P
(P,p$
tTt(0P,L
P0$,L,t
P,L,P,
x,PTP(
PTP,pxt,pt
,P,t0PPL$
H,Lt(P($P
,L$$,$
(($$,
L,H,,
PL,$$
p,$0P
($0$,T$$
0P(P(,
,x,t0P
T,$$P,$
H$,L$$
$$,$$
$0$,L$
P$,L$
$,T,$
$T,P(t,
P,t(P($
$,($$,
LH$TP
$PL$$
Px,$,$
$,L,$$
($,(P$,
P$0$$P
$,$,$,$
,$$P($P
H,P($
$P$P($
P,$$T$
,L$P,$,(P
T$,,H,
(P$$,
P$$,L,
,L$P,
$,$,H
$P(PP$
($$,L
$T,H,
(HH$P
$$,x$
P,$,(
L$,T0P$
$$,,L
(P0$H
$,0,H
0$,PL
LTP$P$
$,L$,P$,$
L$,T$$
x,p,P$,
$,$,$P
t(P(P
$,(,$
,L,$,
P($0P
$0$,L
PL,L,
$P(H$
x,L,x,,
LP(P,
$P,pPP,$
$,x$$1
$$,$H
$,$$P
L,L,$,
(P,(t,(t
(,P0P(P(P
$t,L,t
$P$,,
$,$,$H
$0P$,
$,L$,
0$8t$T
L,,P(T$0tP
$TP$Pp$P(P
$,p,$,$
$,(P,
,,T,L,x
$0$,$
x$PT$
LH,L,
PT$:P
$TTPL,U
$,0TPP0H,,
PPL,P
$0P,P(xH
$,x$,
9tUx$
,H$,(H$
0$,U$P,
0t,TPL
(,$0P
(P,(P
L,$P$
,$$P(
T,$0P
xPxt\p$0
$$xTP$,
$$t0P(
t,$,$
L0$,t,
HP(P,$
PTH\PT
H,T$$,
P$,LH,L
-,(0PT$,L
,$,(P
T$P(P,
t0$H,p
$,P($
P,HT$
H-L,L$,
T,](0
UP,U0
,,$,T
U,(P,
,T,LPPLt
(,,LP(
0P$,L$,(
(H,L,,LT$
P($P0$
P(,t$T
,$,$,$0
t0P,L
PL,LH,
,P(P,
t$,$,$,
H,(PL,
,$TP(
,1P,L0
U0P0P
P0t(TTP
LT,(x
\$,PL
$00,$,P(t
P,T,PTP(
P$0Ppt$,H,
pxP(P
,$P(,
,P$P0P,$P,
,L,$,
P(0P0
0x,y,L
TPL$P
,0P$P
$,T,t(t(
tTTUtxTPLP
,P,L0
PP($t
P,,P0t,(P,
PUyTTx
,P($,
,P0P$P($
(t(TPt,(t(
HPTP(P(,
x0$PT
xH,LPP(
P,(0t8P01P
0P(,T
,TT,x
PLt(P(P(xP
TP0x,
t$t(t,$,H
P($L,
t(xT$,,L$,
$$T$$TP$$
$PP$,
P($,$
$,,$T,H,T$
,(P0x,
T,,LTH
p,t(P
u0$xx,
L,tTt
L\UHT
(T,HTt
$tTP(
,0P$,t
P,L\P
$t0t$0
,y,P,L
0x,L,
(T,lPTt$x
HP(P,(P,L
,P(,tPL,Lt
$,(P(P,L
PPx,xt\
$,xHP(,
$,H$,($,
P(tP0L
\1PUTT
U,L0Q,LPT
P(P,0,L0
$,0P0
,x,x],x0
0t]y0,T
,T,xt(
pPLP,
P0P$0,(P
,L$PPxPL,p
(y0H1
x$,(Pp,
,P(x0T$T
,x,L,$TP
P(T0P0P,
t\H1,
0Hx,L00xT
TP0PT
T,,Pxp
t,P0,P(1Pt
tLP,p
pTxPxTTU,T
Tt0P,L,U,P
,(txP
U,x0t
p,PH,
LPP,(,
00P$,T,,L
p0,p10P0P,
xPPLt,LPLP
P(PT,PP
tLP(t,
0tPPxHU,t
T,TTU$x,pt
,L,P(
P(T$T
P1xP]y
xUt(\,0
,TUUP
x1PTT
P,0x,P
0P,TT
0,x\P$
H(x,H(T
0$,L,0,L,T
$,PLP,
(x0t0
$LH0$
,T$x,
$LTT0x
xTPLPPT,(
T,LPt(xx,H
y,xTPP0,
lTt(t,L,
P(P,tT
,x,p-LU
t0P0HQL
,xy$,xPL
0xUTU
,xx0yP
(P,P(
$,LPT$P0P,
$P0,L
PH,xPTP
TTP0P,(P
P00T,PtUx,
TTP0,$TtL,
\Q\x$0
\UPT0tx
xy0],0P]
T,pT,
0$,P(Pxt,,
LPTtTt,(t(
H(T,pPxH
PLPPLP$
,pTUP
P,HP0P$P
LTP(,TP
,px,P
$,L,H,H
L,L$x,
PTyT0TPP
\$t(TTP0,p
,TxU,P
1PTP0t
x9x1T]
0y0P0
,PPTxU
9xUT,L
TH\L$,0
PL,P,
H($$P
L,tPT,H
T$0TTP
TU,P(0P
,0,P0
t,x,1
TtPx,U,0
Ux,py
x,p0$b
0,px0x]x
\x,TPpx
L0P,pP
PP\,PTpP
Tt($T
t,,0T
,P,$t\p,p,
,x,$,
x,TPL
(P0P(0
P(P,T0P(
1,,LTP0,U0
xTyTx
TT,]T,x]tt
],x9P
$0P,x
(,P(t(P
H,P,xT
(T,P(P
TPP(P,$
,x0y,t
$x,,0P
90T,p0PP
P(x,L
0P,0yP
Tt(t\
HHP(t
P,t(,
H0xH,
$,$,L
($,L,
P(PLP(
-$0$0P
(PTPLx,
$\yP1
U,Tx,x,p
,t0,T0P,T(
xt(-T,L0P
,L,L,L,H
$,0P(TP$PT
HT0H,x
P0$PT
0P\xP
HxTTt0Ux
P(P^U
TtPLHPL$,p
P(PLPt(,L
(tt,0t$
0$,P(,
(P,L0,
$,xTt
(t(xTP1P
x,P]T
TP,,T,(P
,,x0x,T
,0TH0x,
LP,pH
$$,(,xt
x0PTy]
,x,t]y
t0tPTtPTT
x,tTP(xx,T
,L,ty
L,p,P
x,TTP
PLt,P
PTxTU
\PTt,1t(T0
TH0x,
tTPLT
TQUt,T
p,T,(t
P,(tTP
(Tt0,$0P
xPx,(,L
Ux,x0HPx,p
L$,0,x
1P(x,TH
,t(t0t
LTP,L$
(P$x,H
P0,L,P,(PL
P(x0P$P(P$
t(PTy
\tT0t0
0Px9PL0PT
TPx]t0t0
,x,PLT
,t0yHPL$,L
,t(0t,x,LT
,$,LP
at$00
(txx$p,
,P0tP
`xPPTQ(T
T,$UTx
,L,(P,
0t,L,t0
x,x\t
,TT0T,
0xt0T1,
yH,x,
$x,,p,t,$
,(,,H
0T,L,,L
T]xxT
0tT,1TtT
xxTPTxT1tP
TQtTTU
t0P(x,L
L,P$0,
tTTPx\
tPp,,
PTP,xPL
L,t(T
x,L,P0t(P(
P$x,(
0x]x]
$P(TP$0tL,
p,$0P
yTPqU
yy1PT
]p0P,T
H0P0P
\M-\t
`y1x,
q,QLt00P
P0,L,T,TP
TPHTxPLPP
0,(t,P,
(P0,p
,Pt(x,xQ0
L,,LTP,x
xtPLP
Tt0x,
,x,P0,
t1xPxP
]UHTy\p
,PTt,P0
t]LPTU0y,x
\x,tT,x
T,]($
PPT1,T
P,x,U
,x,P1,T
0xTTU
\TPU0x0UPU
TQUxU
1T11T
R-xy0T
T,U0P
P\Ly0P9U0U
UxxT
1U\Uy\y
Tt0x1
0P(0UT
P00y0
TU\qUx
1U19U1
]](U]1U]u9
1Uy]1]]U
P]U0Q
,L,xU
1TZ$,
P,1T19
QY]xy9
,0y1,1)P
T]9P(
L,y10-y
T9UU91
,T0PTxt,U,
T,$\$P
x1TU\
$PL$H
0PTP1xy,(P
U1Q0QTa
yx,x1
0H,L,H
PUTyUx1
01T]P
x9xy0y1
$01PP
(P]t]
,p1,P01$
-\]t0x
\y0P0P0T
0yTt0l
$y\tTx-P
]]y9U1
UQ-,P
,xTy,t
M,x10U9
\^1]T1
L,PTT1y0
TxUtL
,Txx,P(
y,UTx,
xTxQxy1PTU
1PUU0U0
,xH9T-U
,P0Q,(
l,lHH
]1y9T
QyTyU]
:t,U,
,0t,xTtp\t
(],TT
U1,0T,0T,L
UT]UUT9
,(U,P
$0P)T]T1
Uu\xU
1x1T,T,y,L
P0P(tl
,y1TUx9
x-y1QTU1
,q\P)\,
tltlP
P10U\UU8
t9,UT
1T,TPU,
,M9U-`UT
pyTyP
PQTUPPt(1
(-P(tl
U0U0P,U
,,U1P0y,p
,L,xP
x,1P0Q
PU,P\L
0,t]P0y0
M10y,
aP-\(
TP-Txu0U]y
]0t0T,P
P1,UP]9P
x1U09V
1TT,0
]]U]0
1t(PTP,0-T
1,1P)0U0U]
TyxTt
Ux9PUTxUT1
p348-12
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 12)
ftsTitle
The Bell-Boeing Osprey prototype, first flown in March 1989, demonstrating the tilt-rotor concept.
Aircraft (12 of 12)
1. Development
The Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey combines the advantages of airplane and helicopter. First flown as a prototype in March 1989, it uses the tilt-rotor concept: engines driving large rotors are mounted at the tips of the wings to swivel upwards (vertical) in helicopter flight mode and swivel forward (horizontal) in airplane mode. Although less efficient than a simple airplane in cruising flight, the Osprey is vastly superior to a helicopter, being able to fly - for the same payload and fuel consumption - about three times as far in the same time.
* ENGINES
* HOW AIRCRAFT WORK
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
$-xTx
t$]mUu
8T,TT
tLP$l
$$H$HH
u$,I%
)lIIH
-q%uMQ2Iu-y
-uHlPPL
P,HH,I$QLH$
lHmUIu
TtLHP
,PlHl
Q)mR-2
yUu2yUz
PTPxP
ubtat9-
llllll
]yt]MfM
$$$lllHlllll
1yUy1
)>t:u
lllll
]yU9y
Uu]1bt]u:y
lllll
M:Mbt]
,:u\Q]Q
:QaUau=U
1y1U1
U]u]U9
TU1UUy21y1y-
l1Q)P
V11xUy
9M1Uu1]yyy
-]]Uy19y
UUy]Uy1^]
Ux1Yy]
y11-QLQ
$tll(H
1y1xx
yT191
T]U11TU
-T-U1UyU
UyUU1
UT-YU
1y,9UU
TPxPTP$Q
1,-Py,U-y1y,UUy%
Q8u]Q
TUx,T
y,--P
QTI1U1U1
-0PTP1T
,tTH,u
y]y]Uy
LxPTP
UUU1yU
]u9u]U9yT
yUy]xU
plPlt
yTUx]u]T]y
$I%uH-
]q]Q8u
yU11t0uu
0$U%1I
1UU9Q
xPxtTP0Px,T,
U]1yU
t0tT,
yQU]Q
PTyP1P
$,t=u
,L,xUtU
yyyU$H
-,p1y,a
U0x]Q]x
x,QTy0P
U\latP]qTPUu0
y0]uT-]yyP
9TyQxP
9UTPQxQ0yPux,:yUT
TuTtQL1tTt
(UPyxP1P]
TUu--QUQ
%$$%$IQlm
t,TP0
y1,y-\I]H9
$uMuUu]
y,p,TtL
0TQx,
P-q0Q11L]19
uIuQu
-)P-u
TPTPyx,$P
QTHU,]HPL,q,xH,
QTU-UUU
xau:U
MxUTVm
1PPx(P$Qq-
-qTPUxP$T$P$PPp,$
lTHx,xlUTP,t(
-t,,y,QT
(--9lU$bQ0ubPat1y
x\x\t
0QH-m,qQy
)P,,P,P$
t0$yPxx,L,t(HU,
x,yx]
TP)tTH0,,x
-1,p0y,U
-])U-
lt0tTt,$$PI-M
,pHHUxTtPH$$$TIu,
PtPy$,l,Lx
PH,MTl,$,0xlt0y
%lP,$P(x
P$m,I
0PPL0t
TtT,(1P,L0P
P$,LPP(PP(x,$P
VzQV-Q%.I-I
PPLH,L,p
tLP,pP
Pt,H\
\$\H,H
,p,HP
x,pH,pt
HPH,$
$,$TU
TxytT
H,pPt
t-yTt,l-$
t%$up$,tH
uTt0,tL,,p
H$PpPPt
Tt1l0l
HPt0HTxP
LPx,,tx
P(P$$
PLHTl
,tp$t
UH,$PH
($,lH,
0PLHPL$t$
PP(xPL0
THtLt(PP(HP
$$0$,$-
$HPxT
$tLyU
xTxTx
%$xHTlP
xyTTt
PyU\x
PLPH,
UTQxTy,
TT0PP
$U,Q)UUQU
zQqQI
t0Pl,L$tPLu1x
TPTT$$P
P$TtL
$,pt,l
UtTPx
%$$$1
,$$$t
M-P$-
0T0xPT
\T,\,
^ ^ :
,L0T\
P,(xT
TP0x9]]
UP-l$P$
$,L0,Tx9
:]]u-
$,HP$$
$$$,$H$$
,$$,p
LP$,$P
TT\TT8
x`xeUb
P$$$H
jzjzjz
$8t(P
]\PT$$
0$1Ux
`T8,\Pt
,P0t,
Vjz V
zb :b
:b
_ : V
b^
~ b
^ bf
b
bVjz>z
jzb^
: ^ b
^ f^
^ :
^ ~
p350-1
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 1)
ftsTitle
This animation of a jet in flight shows movement and design elements.
Aircraft (1 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
The term 'aircraft' includes every man-made device that flies in the atmosphere. The most important group of aircraft, called aerodynes, are not naturally buoyant - they are heavier than air. Aerodynes obtain their lift in a variety of ways: by jet thrust; by means of rotating blades; or by means of fixed wings, with a separate propulsion system to make the wings move through the air.
A smaller group is the aerostats, which are naturally buoyant - they are lighter than air. Those without power are called balloons (gas-filled or hot-air), while those with propulsion and some means of steering are called airships or dirigibles.
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
NASA.tbk
fname
CaptionText
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"NASA"
defaultPage
fName
*.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Jet in flight animation
(B(B|,
**++*
p350-2
Encyclopedia
Section
Aircraft (2 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
The principle of flight
When the weight of an aircraft (due to the force of gravity) is exceeded by the lift (the upward force created by the wings or by hot air or lighter-than-air gases), the aircraft will rise in the air. In the case of airplanes and gliders, lift is produced as a result of the characteristic profile - the airfoil section - of the wing. The wing is rounded and thicker at the front (the leading edge), and tapers away to a sharp edge at the back (the trailing edge).
Lift is created as the wings move through the air at speed and relies on the fact that air pressure drops as air speed increases. As air passes over the wing, it has to move further, and thus faster, over the more curved upper surface than the lower surface. This causes a considerable reduction in pressure above the wing, especially at the front, where the wing is thickest and the upper surface most sharply curved. Lift can be increased both by increasing the speed of airflow over the wing and by increasing the curvature of the upper wing surface.
Any aircraft with propulsion also experiences thrust - the resultant force pulling or pushing it through the air; and drag - the equal and opposite force caused by the resistance of the air to the frontal surfaces of the aircraft. Drag is effectively wasted energy, so the aim of aircraft designers is to reduce drag without sacrificing lift.
Gliders, lacking an independent source of propulsion, have to fly downhill from the moment they are cast off after take-off. The pilot thus seeks columns of rising warmer air, called thermals. Modern gliders are so efficient that they have climbed to nearly 15 000 m (49 200 ft) and flown 1460 km (907 mi).
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
Outline
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 2)
ftsTitle
p350-3
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 3)
ftsTitle
British Aerospace's active-control demonstrator seen flying with a stable RAF Tornado. The demonstrator is a modified SEPECAT Jaguar, deliberately destabilized by 10% by fitting wing leading-edge strakes and aft ballast.
Aircraft (3 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Aircraft stability
In the absence of other forces, an aircraft's center of gravity would have to be at the same point as its center of lift for the craft to remain in equilibrium. In practice, however, because of thrust and drag, nearly all airplanes are designed to be naturally stable in the longitudinal plane, but with the center of gravity ahead of the center of lift. This causes a downward movement of the nose, which is counteracted by a constant download on the horizontal tail. Any disturbance tending to tilt the aircraft nose-up or nose-down is countered automatically by the change in the angle of the wings and of the horizontal tail. Today, thanks to extremely fast computers, fighter planes can be deliberately made naturally unstable. This has two advantages: instead of a download the tailplane imparts an upload, thus helping the wing instead of fighting it; and as the fighter is always trying to depart from straight flight (restrained by computers that apply restoring forces 40 or more times per second), the aircraft can be made exceptionally agile.
To control an aircraft, the pilot must direct the plane's movement on three axes. In conventional aircraft, changes of altitude - climbing and descent - are achieved by moving the nose up or down (on the pitch axis) by means of elevators. Directional control (on the yaw axis) is provided by the rudder, while lateral control (on the roll axis) is effected by trailing-edge flaps called ailerons.
Aircraft (4 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Aircraft controls
Airplanes and gliders are controlled in the longitudinal (pitch) axis by elevators on the tailplane, or by having a fully powered pivoted tailplane. A few modern designs have a foreplane instead of a tailplane, and a very few have both. Directional control is provided by a vertical rudder, which is usually located on the tailplane as well. The rudder is also an important control surface if a multi-engined aircraft should suffer failure of an engine mounted far out on a wing.
Lateral (roll) control was formerly provided only by ailerons - pivoted portions of the trailing edge near the tips of the wings - but today roll control can be effected by asymmetric use of the tailplanes or by asymmetric deflection of spoilers. The spoilers are door-like surfaces hinged along the top of the wing. Differentially they control roll, and symmetrically they serve as airbrakes by increasing drag. Spoilers can also be used in direct lift control to enable the aircraft trajectory to be varied up or down without changing the attitude of the fuselage. On landing, spoilers act as 'lift dumpers', instantly killing wing lift and thus increasing the weight on the wheels and the effectiveness of the brakes.
All early aircraft used cables in tension or push/pull pivoted rods to convey pilot commands to the control surfaces. From about 1950 powered controls were widely introduced, in which the surfaces were moved by hydraulic actuators, the pilot's controls being provided with some form of artificial 'feel' so that he could sense what was happening. By 1970 fly by wire was rapidly becoming common, in which the pilot's controls send out small electrical signals, which are carried through multiple wires to the surface power units. Today fly by light is being introduced: pilot signals are conveyed as variable light output along optical fibers thus offering colossal bandwidth and data-handling capacity.
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 4)
ftsTitle
p350-5
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 5)
ftsTitle
Pilot's-eye view of a modern fighter cockpit (F-16C). Several advanced systems are used to reduce the pilot's workload, including a wide-angle holographic display and keyboard, to project data onto the see-through screen above the instrument console. The control stick is on the pilot's right-hand side; the backward-tilted seat and raised heel line enable him to tolerate high g-forces.
Aircraft (5 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
The high-lift system
An aircraft has to work hardest during take-off and landing, when airspeed is at its lowest and yet maximum lift is required. To facilitate these maneuvers, most aircraft have a high-lift system, brought into action for the approach and landing, and usually also for take-off.
Along the leading edge of the wing there may be slats, slender portions of the wing moved out and away on parallel arms, or alternatively Kreger flaps, which swing down and around from underneath the leading edge. These full-span devices greatly increase the available lift, especially from a thin wing suitable for fast jets.
Along the trailing edge are fitted flaps. These again come in many forms, but all swing back and down from the wing. When selected to a take-off setting, such as 15 deg, they increase lift and slightly in-crease drag; when fully down, at the landing setting of perhaps 40 deg, they increase lift even more but also greatly increase drag.
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
$0P(P
LtPp$
-0-0-
pPP($
]\U]$
tPPLt
,U,U0
lPlltp
tLltl
,,HtHtLlPp
tlPpPpPP($
,(tLtltlP
PltLltp
Pltl,$$PH
Q,0UT1Y
$,pt(
PlP$P
P1T1T
(,t(tLttL
TUUT1
8,UTU-Ux
11T0y1
$,LPtHtpP
U1T90
89y8]
LP,tLPPpPp
lttpl
Ltll,
T1U\]
PtltT
1T1T\]
PpPPttpP
U]T1T
5x,P0
PLtLl
lPlttp
ltLtLl,(H
Pt(lPl
tLltLtL
pPptltlt
x1x]x]T
Ll,pP
LtHPlltllP
,$,Lt
1y]x]
pPu(P$
]UT]]
lpPltLl,$
(P,P)x,yx
0U0y0
lPt,tH
(t(tTxTt
P(tLy
TTUTy\y]
H,LPptHp
pPltp
0P,,TQx
Pl,tpPtt
(,x-,TxPx
tlPpP
,lPPpPp$,
L,LPTt1
,-T]Ty
Pl,(t
0t0P0tUxT
P-T1TT
,P$,pP
(,p,xUxy
1TP]0
(P,x,
,P,P1xTxU
,U,10
P(P0t
Q(T0tUxyx
,U01xy0y\
,PLPpPL
x,LPUxUx]
pPUP,x,L
PTt0tUxy
1t0x1x
$$,PLPP
LPp,p,p
0TTUUT0
PLtPtl$
(tLPTt,x,t
,U,U1
,PPptp,t(x
T1x1xT]T
P,L$,
$,L,,$
P(t(PP(P,p
0U\yUU
,L,L,
P(PPLP,T
-0UTy\
P$,H,
$,(PLtPp
,PLPP(
P(10P10yx
U,T1x
,(tpPt($
,L,H,,P
L,,p,t(P,
,UTUx]x
(0P0UT
PTPp,
(PPL,$
P,L,L0t,LP
Uy-,(
L1TTUx]x
(T-TT00
,LTPp,t$
(P,(PP
LPP(,P(P,p
,t,t(PPTP
TUT]x
PTP1t1T
,LTtpPt
$,$H,L,
P(t,L
(P(,p,p1tT
x,U0P
YT]Y\
,TTUPT,
L$T,x
tTtpPt(,P$
LPPL,$
,,p,P0t,tx
,UTUTT0x1t
,-T,p,
0tTtxPp,$,
LPP,L,$
L$Pp,
t,t(P,LTPx
,x-P0$
0UTyxUTT1t
0x,T,xPUPt
PpPPp
L$,L,t,p,
,(,(P(,t(t
0x,x,xTQTP
,x,U,U0P0P
x(TPx0tTtx
PtpTP
$PPpT
p,L,,pP,P
(t,L,PPxPt
0t0x0x
P0yTUUxx
,U,y,L,,T,
t,x,xTtxT
Pp,t0tPLPt
,pt,PL0
t,LPP(xtTx
TP1TPP(P1,
00xP0P
0t0x1tTPTx
PTPxtL,,L,
$,(t,pP
tpPt(
(P(,P
(PLtL,t
(t0t(tTx
PT1T,1P
,P0t(PTP
xPT,(,
tLt,L$P(
$,pPt(t
0t0PPxTxPx
PT,x,,P
0xTtxt,
PtLtpPt(
tLtLP
P(PLP
,H,($
,t(t,p
,tLxtTt
xPU0U0P
]8]aT
P(,P,
,TTtT
TTtTtT
ttPP(
$,p,LH
P(tLPP
LTPPy
TU,U,T
U0T1xUx1t
tTxxPxxt(t
,Lxt(ttLtt
Ltp,P($$,
]Tx,$
PPptL
LTPxP
y,T-T1P
P0txTxTtTt
tLtPxPt(tt
,ptPtp$
,LPx,
(t,xtTPTyT
x1x1x0t00T
P,00P
tx,tPLx
tpPP(
P(PP(
,tx,xxTP
0xx1T0P1
]:aU8^>
T0|Tyx1
Tt,,TP(PPL
(TPUTPyTy
UTx1x1xQ0,
Q0,0U,
(UTe9]
tT,pPp
,Pp,($
P0PT0,1TUU
\TTyTU0P0T
T,T,P,
$xPtTp$
T-T,PPT,x-
P(,,P(
0x,xT
P,x-xTUT
xUT,U,P
P,L,P(
$,x-x
,(P(,
UxT1T
Py,x,,P
P)T,0t(t0
$,LPyTx1x
P10T-T
P(P1P
U]UTP
,T,1tT,UPL
0-TPT,L
x0UTUTtUTT
,UTUT0-x1T
PTP(,1
,10t0Px,0Q
TTPTQT
P(,-T,yPyx
Ty0yT
TT0P,P
0Px0u0TTPT
UPTPx,t
tHtH,
L,T,L,L0
,PxTxt
yPTPT
TP1,0TyPPx
0xxUx,x0t1
p0,PTPTtT
tTPxUxUx]
x,T1UT
tyTPxTxUxy
Tx1xxPT,x,
pxTtUx
xxUxU
,t1t)PQ,l
xPyTxy
PUx0x,x,
PQ(u,)-uUu
x0tx1x
TxxyTP
$PPHPl
l$Pl$$
yTyxUx
xyTxTyxP
Tx1x,T,
TxTxx
xTt0T
$$TtH
yTt0P(
$,t(PP
PtPpxx
$$P(P(tL
H,($,T,x
TxPxPtT
TxxTx
Tt(P$
Pt(t$
$P$,$
,$PH$H
H,p,u
(PLPpU
(H,H,$Q
$$Htlt
(tPpT
lPltL
PPpPp
$$PH,lPl
LHt$PLlt
$$H,$,$
Q,p-PMP-Tx
HPHPHH
,H$,p$
P$PH,lP
ltpPt
P$tLl\ltP
$tTt$$
,HtL$y
P(PLHPLPHt
PltLlP
LtpPt
LttplU
H,lPp,
PH$tHt
PLPLHU
P(t$`t
$P(l$
$,H,lt
HtPptlt
$,$$,p$
PtlH$,LtH,
PUH,,HU
,lttpt
LPH$P$
$H,lPlt
(l,$P
plPpP
ltlltl
HPL1T'
,PlPltLP
P$,HH
t($$t$
$P,L$P$
,P,L,$
$,$H$t$L
,$$Ut,(
$,($1
,$P$$
tQMt$4
y,P,uU
lPH$H
ltlPp
HtpPl
$PpPlP
tPtlt
ptPlt
$$,$PHPH
l,t,p
tHtpl
P,$,$
lPpPt
,H,$,Pp$
$H$H,$
ttltT
TtTH,$
)-01P
P,P(,
0,QL,L
Q,PUP0P
PU,U,L
-PTUP
0U-y]
-(yUyxUyU
-xU0X,$
M,P(T,P
(Q,y0
t,U,y1t
P,Mux1y,
1$H$,
1x1y1
-,,P,P
,U-T-
Q1,(P
\T90-0
xUP0P
]xT,T1
Q)|U0T
MYx0,
xUyx]x]
,L1,UPL
1uTP,
yUyTUT
xUUPL
M,-yT
,U,M0,Q(
UTQ0UT,1P)
-,1Uy
]T1TTUP
QT,Q,1
Q,(Q(
P,0$,
x1TUyU
T,Q,P,
TUUTyxQTPU
M,P1,
-0,1T
UUTy1x1t1P
UTPUx,M0
L-T-(
0T1x1
UPy0xUy0uU
Ux1x-0t,)
1PUx1P110y
0x1x1U0P0U
T1ty0y0P1t
0P1,M
P-L,P
P,Q0uTxQ
1y,T,)T-t,
T0TUT,0QxU
yUt-t-,
P(UTPT-0P-
PU-T-T1y
,y,-,P),
x,QTy0
yUtUQQ
TUUT1
1U,T-T-,
M,-,L
PTUy8
y]xy0yxUP1
x,T-0P(U,)
-M,1,U,(
P,-x1
TQ1x1x
1y,0UPU,U,
U,L1,-t1T,
T-T-L-
UP1xUUtUx1
TPUy,UPU1x
,y,)T,0UTU
U,)P1TQ0-x
,MTy\y
T,1x1
P,L,P-T,
UQ0x1x1xx1
,1M1P,L,
(Q(,L,P(-
-x1,0
1x]xQ
UxT]1x,yTU
QxPLUtUxTy
UyUxUtUP
Q0y,1,)PT
,-U,Q0
$QUU,U
xx,T-
PLT,L,x,U,
TPx0PTy0P9
t0PTPTPPUU
TyTytUy
,t,M,$
\xx0P0P
(PUPL0tTUT
PTP,P1T-p0
,-uPTPpTux
PytUtxTtyx
TPTPUxt0TT
yUTT1Ux1x
0U0T1U01y0
y0y\yTyy0y
TtUx0P,L,P
p,yQTQ1
UPLyT
xPUt(,P(,,
,P0P,LTQ
LTPxxPx,TP
x1t1,x
,LTP0TTPxT
yTQTP0P-x1
,0x,P(,,MQ
PT,1P0,L0P
UT-x1
UUxy0y\
yUyt0u
P1PpUPU0
PQ101x
),Q,L
1xPyTP
LTPT,
P(,L,L,P(t
(x,xt0t0,L
P,L,,p0
,P,T,0Q(,x
Q(1PUT-x0y
UxTyxT
1t,L,Q(P,T
0PLP(-L,,L
-L0Q,T1
yx01-0UUy]
xUxUtUPPt,
PPQ1,
x1x-x0U0-L
PUP1t
(0,,pP,L,L
,P,L,P(
L,PLPLP
Ty,UPTPTTP
0PUT,x,y,,
T,y0x
P1PUT
U0yUxyy
TuTuTP,-P(
L,U0Uu0xQ
UxUxyPU,Q,
T)0-L,P,
T11P1Q$
-(T1,T-
x01t1
(P,(P,
(P,(P,t
L,P(x,0,L,
,0P0,T,LTP
TP1x,0P0P)
T,x,0yxQTU
T1yxyUU
yTyUxyPQTP
T0y0y0y0yT
PUTTP,PPT,
0T1x-x,)0P
0PUPQTty
0x0P(1Ty
P,LPP
L,,-TPL,
(P(UPL,1,L
0P,TQ(P(P(
,LU,T-TU0x
T1PUUTyU
xUyPyPyPQ,
1P0M,y(
1x1UTyt-P1
P,P0P(
-x0y]xy1y
,,L,L,
P1,x,P,0t,
L,P)x,L,t1
,U,T,Tx-PT
Tu0y-
P00U0U
0yTUUxyyTU
UTuTPM,P,,
0TUUTUUTtU
QPPUT
x1TT,(
,Q,(,M
,P0u(PTQLP
(P,L,x,0,U
PT0-TPTQyT
tUxUx0
T,x1yxyUx
TyPyP-,,
P,x,],U0x1
xTUT1t1,1P
Ux]x]
x9TT,0
P,,P(,,P0T
-,L,0QPL,t
L,L,P,P(,
L,,L0
t0u00x1xTu
xUTUx
P0P,UP
yTyyPyPU,U
P1P,T1P0UT
yPUP]0TU,Q
,P0P1P
(xQTy
,L,L,,P(
p0,t0P
,L0,Tt)P,
,P,-P-,L
L,$,(
TyTuU
U0U,Ux-xTy
PyuTUTUPU,
yTU01Ty
L,1xUP
)xUx1x]yTx
x\P0T
UP1,1P
,P(0Q
-TTxTyPUPx
t1t-P
x1P10P
T,U,Q
1x-x]
-P1x0
Q,,P,T
-UP1P
-,1x1
y90$y$
xPy0yTyx
,Q0P1t1
T1Q0PUT1,T
1-T0T1U0T1
x0xU0y1yT1
10Q0t
P1T,UTU,0
UTUUx1yUx1
yT1y0yy0yU
U0y1y1
UTUy1
Tyy1yxU
1y]y]
Q0Q1T1
QUT1xUU}]
Ux9y\
TUQT10U,-T
-0-Ux1-P1,
U-T,Ut
Py0yUUTyUy
yTy1y
]UyU\yUyy
U10Uy1UUQ1
U-T-10yT1x
y1P1PUU
Ux1P0P0-P
1y0,U-T-M(
1y-UQ0-1P
1U,U,1P-0U
0u9xy0y1P1
U-x11x1y10
y0U,y1
xyx1y
y]y\y\y]
0y81yU]
yUUT1y11T
]Uxy1y0
yxU]U
]x]yUU
]P0Q0U1
1UT-1
UTUYUUyTUU
TUy0y1
yx]y0
]1xy0
y]P]UU]UxU
x]yy]t
yx1xU9y9
1xUU]x]U]
]x]y\y
y]y]U
]yU9y8
U]]Yy
y8y]y
UTy]y
\U]U]y
9y]]yy]
y]U]]y9y]
]T]y]
9y]y9
]U]U]
y]y]U]
9y]y]
9y9y9y
]Y]U]
9y91y]
]9y9yT]U]1
1xy9y9Y9
y9y\]U]
]]U]U]9y
]]UU]
]]y9YU]TU9
Y\U]1
U]]y9
1]U]1
9U9y10
U]U]]U]
U]U9y]U]
]U]U]
9y9UU
]1Y]U]]U
1]U]]U
1]19y9y9
1Y9U]
U]y9y9U
9Y9y9xU
9U1]]
5U]1]U91
]U]1y9y
9Y9y9
]T9y]
y9y1]1
(-1]]
y9y9y
U1]9y:T
U9U]U
]U]U]U]
U9U]]
]9U]]
19y9U9
y9y9]
9y:y9
p350-6
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 6)
ftsTitle
Russia's latest jet fighter the SU-35 is shown in action at an air show in Kubinka Russia.
Aircraft (6 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Aircraft propulsion
Until 1939 virtually all airplanes were powered by piston engines driving a propeller, which provides thrust by accelerating air through aerodynamic rotating blades. Almost all modern propellers are of the variable-pitch type - the angle at which the blades attack the air can be altered. The blades are set to fine pitch for take-off to match high engine speed with low aircraft speed, and then automatically adjusted to coarse pitch for cruising flight, to match economical low engine speed to high forward speed. After landing, some propellers can be set to reverse pitch to help brake the aircraft.
During World War II, engines grew rapidly in power. The Spitfire Mk I, for example, had a two-blade propeller, while the Mk XIV had five blades, in order to absorb the increased power within the limited available propeller diameter. Today some turboprop airliners have six-blade propellers, turning at relatively low speed for minimum noise.
During and after World War II, the propeller gave way to the turbojet for most purposes. The turbojet itself was largely eclipsed by the turbofan, which offers better fuel economy and reduced noise levels.
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
WTN.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"WTN"
defaultPage
fName
).tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Jet fighter the SU-35
**++*
VzVzVVz
\z\zV
z\zVzV
VzVzV
\z\zV
\zVVzVV
VzVVz
V\zVV
zVzVV
VzV\z
z\Vz\V[
z\zVVzV
z[VzV
zVVzV\
Vz\VV[VVU
\VV\zV
Uz\Vz
p350-7
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 7)
ftsTitle
The Stealth Fighter. The shape and materials used to make the Stealth Fighter have made it almost undetectable to hostile radars and other sensors. The low, flat shape was designed to reflect radar energy in directions other than back to the radar.
Aircraft (7 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Helicopters and autogyros
A helicopter is lifted by a rotor (sometimes two rotors), which is constructed of between two and eight slender blades, which effectively act as rotating wings. Lift is created as the rotor is driven round under power, forcing the air obliquely downwards. Because the rotor can create lift even when the aircraft itself is stationary, a helicopter is able to hover, and to take off and land vertically. In forward flight, the airflow through the rotor is complex. In order that the greater lift produced by the advancing blade does not destabilize the aircraft, the blades are hinged at the rotorhead, so that they flap up and down once every revolution.
An autogyro has no mechanical drive to the rotor (except sometimes to pre-spin it), but uses a separate propulsion system, usually driving a propeller. This propels the machine forward, the airflow through the rotor causing it to spin of its own accord. The air flows obliquely up through the rotor disc.
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
^^^^2V
2:V22U2^
2^2Y:2
62:12
:V2^222^1:V
V2:2V
62^:Y:
2^2^2:2^::
2U2V:V
2U2V1U
V::25:
2Y:Y2U
:^^^:
:V2::
Y2U:2VY2
1:VY:Y
^1V2:
:Y2:1
:Y^11V
V12U1
V:^2^
2:2YV2
YV:22
:2^2:U:V:
21:V1V:
2Y:2^
U12U2
YV^2^2V2
612U22
V2:2:
12^22
2V:V2:YV
U21:V:
Y22U2
^52V:212V
Y^2Y2U2:
1:V22Y22
V:V:2
^^V::V::
6YV:V:
2^:U2
2V2^2V2
2Y1V221
U:V:22U2^
2U22^21^2V:1^2
12Y1U
U22^1
::2Y::
6Y2^22
Y:^22
:1^21U2
U1^2^
^^6^2
:V^^2
1:V:2
Y21:2V
:2^:V2
U2U:2V
:U2^1
1^2Y2Y
V:V1V:
2Y2Y:
2:V::
2^2V2
2YV1V
2VY2^:
^1VY61
1^Y2::V
:^2^21:V1
2V:15^
2^2V:
:V:222
6:V:^
:V:2^
:V2:2
:2Y2:2
2U:1V2
U2Y22Vb
22Y:2
U:U2U2
62^2^
2^2^2
2^2VY2Y2^2:Y^122V::
U2^21:1
1V:V92V:V
2:2V1
621V:2
:V:U2
9V:YV2
::2^2:V2
:2^2V2
:Y:2:2
:VY:2Y:V:
221^:
:2U::12
::V:2^:
2^:2Y2^
V2VY2
2:V2^2
22^1V1V2
52^2V22
2V:b2
^2Y2^
:2^:2
:2::V
:V2V9V1^2^
:V:2V2
2VY:U:
11^12:V2
:2:U2^
VY2VY:
1V2YV
12V:2U:Y1:
21^2^
^21V92
V1:V2
^^2::
62:2^:12
U:2:2U
12V:V2
V:U1:6
2::Y2V2
U2V1^
12^22U2Y:
:2V:2
22:Y2Y
:2^2^
:2^:Y^
2^2^2V:V:
6Y2^2Y:V12YV
1V:U:
^1V::V
^^2^2^
2V:2VY:U22V2Y
:222^Y
^2U2^2
:Y2::^:Y2
2^2^2
2Y6^2
2^2222V
22Y2:V
1V:^V2
V11U1
2^1V:
^2Y2V
^^::^
:^22:Y:V:
:VY2]
1292V
V:211
VY29V
2^1U:2
1^:V:12Y:
^2:V2
V1V::
::^2:^
:^^^::
^2V::2
62:^Z^2:
:2Y1V:
21V2Y
Y229V21
21^1V1
2:2:U:
^Z2V:
1:2Y:2U1^
VY1::
:V2^21V1^:V1^
U2^2U:2
2V21^Y2:
2^2^22
2:2Y:V
U:2^2^1
Y^:U2:
12^2^2Y2
1V:2U
:U2:V1:U
:U2^2:
1V:2V:2:Y
U2:2^
2U:VY2
V2^2^2V
6:1:2
2U2^2^:
:V:^2V
^2^2:
2:^2:1
1216V
62V2:^Y2
V1YU2bU22
12U:22Y2^1
21:Y22
2^2V1
:^^^^^
2:^2
::V2>
U2U:V
:Y2^1:
2^Y22
V:Y1^2
1U2V:U
2U2U:2
:^22^2^12
^:V^V^2
~^^^2
22:V:
6V:2YV2:U2
U2Y2V2
^:Y2:V
^1V:Y22
:V:2Y
2:Y2Y
1VY:12]21:
2Y:Y2
::^_^:
:V^:^
:^^::
2Y29V:
2Y^2::
2:U:V
61:2U
:VY:^2^Y
2V1V:V2
61^Y2Y2
6:^2V:
222^2^
2:V:V:
2:1V2
2^22:V:
U212^
^1U2U:
2^2YV:
:2^1V:
2^^V2
2Y:U:2
2^1V2
2Y21^
21V9V2
2^2:^2
^V2^2V2
6V2:V:
2Y:2:
:2^122^2
::V2Y
2:12V
:Y2:U2
U212^
:U2Y1^:
Y2U:2
U2^1V2
^2:V2
:V:2U2
29^21:
2:VY:
2U2V2
:^::2V:V
^^^V:
222V:
221^2
2U1^2^2
62Y 2U:
:VY2^2^Y
VY6VY2
292^1^
U22U2
^:V:V
::^^^2
6^^^Z:V:
2:^2:V2
6:V2^
^Y:2^2
V:V:V
1^2U:
V:Y2:
12^Y2^2
:1221^2:U:
:V:22
V:^2V
:^2:2
2:2V2
:^:V:
^^:22V:22^ 2^Z2^
::2^2:
:U26:^
2:2Y2^
V2Y:Y22
:2^2^2
2Y^Y2V:
2:^:22
:^bV:2
:2:V:
2Y::2V2
2^:V:
U:2:^:2:
2V22Y2:2V
2U22^Y^1^2
21V:2^
2:V2^
2VY:V:
:2^2:
Y2162
1V:^:
1VY1^
2U2:YVY:2
^22^:
^2::V
:V:^^
:^^:2
:2^^^
V:2^^V
:V:V:2
2:V2V:22
6^2VY
:VY1^1
V:1V2
:Y1:Y
::2Y2^
2^2Y2
1V:1^2
2U:U2
12V2Y
U2U22^2:
2:^2U
2:^2^
V:2:22^
2:2:V:
2V:Y2:
VY2^:2V2Y22^2
22^22
:21^2U
1V:2Y2^22
::U2:
:^Z^2:2:
22Y2^2
^2:V:V2:2
V:^:2
:^2^2^:
:^:^2
f2^2:
2^22:
2VY:V:
62:2V62
21V:2:
VY1:V2Y2
:^2Y2
^15^2:2^2:
^2:V:
2::U2^
2^YV:2
V:Y:V2^
2^1^:
^^^:
62^22
U:2Y2:2
6YV:12
V2Y22V:Y2
22^2:
2Y:^:V:
2YV:1^
V2^:2Y:
22:2Y^:2U:
^^^V:
^1^2V:
2::^:V:
V:2:2U2^:
2Y2::
62Y2:V:
V:^22^
V:2Y2Y:
1V2Y^1
^212V
:V2^22^2
^2^2^:
^2^:2
:V:V:22V
2Y2^:2V2
:U:22V
2^:VY:
:V22U:21
V:V:^
2^29VY
:V2:V
2Y:V:
^^^^:
2622V::^:
2^^22
6:2^2
22Y2^2:V1U:
62:11V:2Y2
1V2Y2^1
2Y2^2Y29V2:2U
:V:2^1
::V2:
^^2V2
V:^::^
^2^2:
2^2^2
6:V:2
2:VY2V
bV22:
62Y 1
1^1:2Y2^2
:2:Y2Y::
Y2V:V
6:2^:
:V:^:
^:2V:V:2
2:2^2
2V2^2
2^:2^Y2::V2
:V2^2:
::2U:^2Y
V12^22
2:VY2V
2Y2^2^
^2V2V2:
:^::2V^:
2:2V2^2:2::
2::Y:
2:V22
^2Y22::1V:
^22:22:
:VY2:2YV
2Y:V:2
U:U^^
:2VY21^
U:2^15
Y5V2^25
21V22
V:12Y
::2^:
:2:V^
^V:2:Y2
:2Y2:
22:::Y:V:
2V2U:
Y:2^2
Y2^:VY22
^2:V2^
Y:Y:2V:V:2^:2
:^2:2
:^:2:
:V:^2^2V:V::V:
2^2V2^:U2^22^2V2
^Y21^
2:V::
V:21:
:Y:2:
^^:V^V:^:
V:^:2:
2:^^V:Y:2^2
2Y2:2^2
:Y:Z2
^^V:^
V:^:2:V^2^
V2^:^:
:2V:2^2^:
VY2:V
:V^2V
^Y:Y:V:
^:VY:
:V:V:V
^2V22Y22^
6Y2:V2:
^2Y:bU2:
U:V2:
Y2Y2Y:V:
V:Y2Y:
:22:2
2^Z^2^2^:
^2:^:
2:2V:
^^:V:
6:V:V:
Y21^1
:Y^1V2
2V:1V:
2V22YV
:V:V:2
:Y2:V2
2::V:
2:V1:2
:11^22
2Y::V
^Y:2^
:V:V:2^:^^2:2
2^:V2^:^:^2
^2:::
2:^:V2
:V2^2:
:V^^2V2
22^2:
::1V:
V:V22
2Y2Y:V
1:U22^Y:2U:
6YV21
2^Y2:2V::
2V2:^
62^2:
2^^V2
^2VYV:^2
22Y^2^1
^^2Y22
:2^:V:
^:V:V:z
1^22U:V2^
2^2V:2
6Y:V:Y
:^:^Z
:V:2:2:
2^2^22V:V:V:
2^^2:
2V2Y2:
Z2Y^1V:
:2^2:
^Y22^
^^2^:
2^2^::
::V2:
22V2^
V:VY:Y
V:Y2^2
2]12:V:2
::^^^:22^2
:2^2V:
V1:V2:
:V:V:2
:U:VY:2
2^2YV1
2^2Y2
:V::V:
:2:2:V:2^
2^2^^
6:V:2
1:U2^Y212
:^2^:
V:2V:V:
2^2:2V92:2^:
^Z^:V:
6:^:2
:Z^:V
^^^^:
:Y2^2^
:V:2^
^:^^^^^^^:
2 :^:2:
2^Z:^
V^V:^:
:^Z2V
:2::2:
62^::^
U:12V
:2Y2V2
:^2^:
:V:2^:^:^:V^^
:2^22
:2^2V:
:V2:V:2
1^212U2:
:V:2]
:Y2:VY:
:2^2:^
V::V:
V^^:^
:2U2:^:^2
2^2YV
:V^:V:
^::^2
:^^V:^:2:
2:V:2
^V2^:V:
2^2^:2::V
:V22^2
2V^:V2
:VU1V2Y^2
^2^:z^
:^::^2^:2^
:2^:2^2:
:2V:2
:V2^::
::^22b
:Y2Y2U:2
:V^^::V:^:^:
V:V2^2
:^::V2:
:2Y2:V2
U1V1V:
^:^:^::
:Z^Z^
:^:2V:
2:^:^^::V:V:^^^:
^V:2^
V^:V2
^2:V:V2:
^:2Y:2:
1V2U2
^:Y22
22:2Y2
:^^^^^^:^
:2^2^^^:^^V:^2
:2^^^
V:V::^
:2:V:
:Z^::
:2::V:^:
^V^2^:z^:
:V:V:
^1:V2^12V:V:
~1^^1V2
:^2^:
:V2:V:
2^V::
:V2Y:U2Y
:^:^^
^2^:b
:^^:^2:V:
:2^:^:
^^:2V22
::^^^^^_^^^
:^2^:2
:^2:^:^:2^:Z^:^
22YV:
2U:V1
6:2^2:2Y:
2:^2V:::
V:V::
2:2Y^
2:^^:^:^
2^2^:^^:V:^2
:Y:2:
^:^_^^
^^^:^
2::2^
:V:Z^2^:
2YV^:
:^:^;
V:_2:
:^:::
::^Z:V::
;^:^^^6
_6 :^
2^2^:V
:^:^2^::^
^^V::^
:~:^^
2Y^:Y2
:^^^::
:^Z^2^:
:^2^:^::
^^^:z:
::^^:
^^:::
:^2^:
^:Z^Z:
^2^Y:2
:Z:^Z
2^::V::
:^Z:Z^_^:b
:22V^2
Q-1---U
Q11U^z
)1--1111U111U
^^^^^
:Z:V:V:
:^^V:
:::V^:
:^^2^
2V::V
:V:^V^
::^::
:^Z2 >
::V:::^:
^:^:^::^
V:^^^
:Z^^^^^2
^2::2
^:^^^:
:^^^^^: :^:
^:^2^:^2;
:2^Z:2
^:V:2
2^:^2:
^Z:^:^^V:
^:^^^
:^^^^:z::V:
^2^:^^:2V^^
:^:V:^2:
2^2::
:^::^:^
:V:^2^:
:Z:Z2:^
^ :V^::^:^2^:^:^
:^^:^^
^^^^^^:
:^2:V:V:
:^^^^^
::^:^^_:
^:^::^:
22^:^2
:^^^:^:^::V:2^::^
^^^^^^
^^^^_^:
:2^:^::
:^2:^2:^:^
::^2V::V:^
_^^^:
^:^:^::^:
:^^^^^^V^^
2^:V:
:^::^
^^^^^:^Z:V:^:
:^2:^
:V::::
:^^^^:
:^^::
^2::V^
:^:^^^2
^^^:V:
^2^:V::
:^^^^
:^^^^2::
^Z2:^:
:^:^^^
:_^^^^:^2^^
:^:^^^:^:_b
:^:^2
2^^^^:^
:^^:~^
:^:^:
:_^^_^
^^^^^:^
^:^^:^
^^^^^
:^^~
>^:^:
^^:^:
^^_^^
::^Z^
:;^^^^;:
;^^^:
:_^^^^^:
:_::^:
;^^^:
^^_:^::^^^:
^^V::
2^:Z^;
:Z^^^
^:^^^^::
:^^^^:^^
^Z^::
:^2^:::
:Z::^2^:
:V^^^^2
::^2:
:Z^:V
:^^^;
:^:::^:V:^::
:::^2V:^
:V:^::z:2
:V:^::
:^^^:^^^:^:
^^^^^^:^:Z:
:^^V:^
^::^:2^::
:V:^:V::^:2^
2^:::V
:^^^^^_^
^^^:^:
22:^2^2
2^2:Z:V:
11UU1U
11-y-11U111)1--1-1(
,Q0y11,-1Uy
:^:^^^^^^^:
^^:^^^:
::::^:^
2^:^3::
::V:2
:2:^:^
:2:^:
:^:^::^:^:V
:Z^::
:^^^:^
_V::V:V:Z^:
_2^2:^
^^^^_:^:^
^^_^^
:^:^:
:^:^:V^^^^:
^2^:V::^^^^^
:^^_:^^^:^:
:^:Z^
_:V^^^:
:^Z^:2^::^2
:^2:^
^ ^ :
^^^:^^ :
^^:^:
:^:::^::
::2^^^:::
:^:V:^2^2::
UUUU1-Q--T--,U--
1U11U1U1
-U1-1
: ^:^^
V^::^:
^::^:
^::^:^
^2^2^::2
::^Z:^:^:2:2
111111
^_::^^^
~ :~:
^2^:V:
U11111
^^b^^:
[:^;:^
^^^^_^:^:
:::^:21-
1-11-
-11-1
^^^^:^:
-11-----L1U11-111--1-1
--1----
--1--,1---
-1-01-1U
^^^::_
:^:^:^::^
)111-
-11111-1111
:^:^:^
:^:^:^^
11U111
:^^^;:
-1,--1-1U-1
^^_^:^:^:
01---
-011-1111^11
^^:_:^^_:
12U1-1--
-111U
U11U11
:^::^
11U11
^^ ^_
_^^^^_
1-111111U1-
::^:_
,1-1-1
:^^^^_:^^^^
;^^^;^:
_^^^^
1-1-111U
^::^b^
1-1-1-111U11
^^^:^::
:^ ^_
^^^^:
011---111U1
: ^^
^ ^ b
U1-0-
11111U1
1-1-1111
1-1111
,1-11--
-111-11-112U
U111-
-11-,-
11-111-1U
:11-
U11-11U1
1-1U11--
1-111-1
1111111
101111
U-111-11-
11-1111
U11-1-
::^^
11111
1111111U-11-
-111-
^ :Y-11-
1)-111U111
1U1-11--1-1
U11---
:^: Y-1
1-1-1
11U11-11--1-11-11
1--111111
11-11
1-111-1
1-11U-11
^ ^^^^
-11--
----0
11U1U11111:
11-1-
1-1-1--
-1-1-1-11111111-
111111-
-,11-1--
-0-U11
^V^UV
1-1111111-1
1-11-1111111-
-1-1----11
-----
1-111
11--1-1-11-1-1-11-111111
1111U11111
1-1---
--1111-1
-1Q1U
1111111-1
U1111
-11-111-11
1111-
-11-1-11-11
11-1U
11111-111
11-11-1
011-1
111U111111111-1-11-1
1111-1-11
-11U1U1-11111
-1-1-1
1-1-11--
_^:^:^:
11-11-1-11--1
U1U11111-1-1-
111111111-1U1
11-11-1-1--
111-1
2:^^^^
111-11-11-111
111-1
111111-1-
111-111
11-11-1
-11--
:;^^^
:V:^V:V:
2-11111111
11-111U
11-1-111
2]1U12
111111U
^:V:::2^:Z^:^:2^2:
:^^V:^^^^^:
^^2^:2^
::^:-
11U-1111111-11--0
-1111-1
111--11
11U111--
Z:12^12^
,-111-11-
1^^^^^:::
_9:::^^_
::V2^:
:2^:^:
2^^^::
^2:^2::
^1U1111-11
1-11-
11-1-
-11-111--11
2^11U1V11
^2:^:^
:V:^:^:^:
^^^^2:
^^^::
^:22^2:^2
U1-111
11111-111U1
11-11111-1-11
-111--
11-11-1-1-
-11-1---
2^::V:
::^:^
:^^:_::V
:V^^2
^::^^^:
:^^^^^
V1111-111U
-11-11-111-11
-11-111
111-01
:2:V11U2:
-1-11-1--
:^:2^2::V:^6;
:::2:
Z^^:^^^:^::
2^2^2:^::V:
V1-1111-
111-1
U1111
11111-1-
2U1^1
----1-
-111::
^^:^^^
:^:Vb
::^2^::^
^::^Z^:
:Z^Z:V::^2:^:V
:1U11--11-11-1-11
1-111
1-111-1
11111
-1111-
^_^^^_
^^^:^
:^:^::^:^2::
:^6^:^2:
:^_^^^
:^:^_
:~:^:
1-1-1111-1
1U1-111
1111U
-10-1-
-1111-1
-1U1-1-111-
-0---
::Z^^
^^:^:2^
:^^:Z::^
^^^^^
:^:^::^^
V11111-1--11-1
-1-111
1111-11-11
111--
11111
12^11
111111
11-1-1-1-
^^ : ^
::^::
U11U11
1111-1
1--1-1-111
1-11-
U1-11111
-1-1111111
U1111--
:^:^^^;:
^ ^2^_
1111-1-1-1-
111-1-
1111-11
11111V11U
--9V:
1-1U1-11-11111
1111111-
11U111111U
--,--11-
U1-1111-U1
11U11V
-)1---
^::^:^:^:^:
:_^^_
:^:^::^::
Z2^:2^
V-111
1-111
11U111
1-1U11111-1U11111--
111111
11111
111-1
2VY:Y
-1U::
^:^^::
^:^::^^^^^_
:^:V:^:^^
111-1111111111U
11-11-
--11-01-
1U111U
11U1111U111
1-111z
:^2V:Y:^
--1-1-11
^::^:^:
::Z:
^:^;:^^;^
V:11U1111-1U1-11-
1-1-1-
11111
1-11-
-11-11-1
11-1111
111U11
1-11-11-111-1--
111--
:^:^:^:^:^
^:^::_^
-11U1-1-1111U1-U1
-111U1U
1U1U111-0
-U1U1
1111U1
^ ^
1111-1-1-11
^^^:::
;^^_^^^^:
:^^^:
:^:^_::;:^:^:
>^^^::
---1111-
-0---
1111-1-1
1-11-111
-1U1^
^ :^
_^^ ^_b
1111111-111111-111-11^:_^
:_^^^^
^:V:^
:Z^:^:
:^^^:
1-111
1-U11-1U
^ :^
^ ^^
b_b_^
1-1-1:
^^^^^:
_^:^::
^^^^^^:^
:^:^:^:^::
;^^^:
_^^^^^
T-,-1-1
-11--1-
-1-0-1
-1-111
^ ^
1U::
;:^::
^^^^:^:
:^:^::
:^^^::
^^:_:^:
^^:^:^
-1111-111
-0-111-1
-0-11111
:^^^^
;:^:^^^^_
^^^^^:
:^^_:
:^::^^::Z:
:^:^:^;:^^
:^^:^:^
::^^^:
^:2^:^
:^^::
-1111
-11-1-
^_6^:^
^^^^b_
:^_^:
:^:Z:^_
^;^::
:;::^:^:
;^_^^^:^^
11-11
-,11-
11--1
1-111
^ ^
^c:^Zb
:^^:^:
;^^^:
1-11111--11-
11-1-11-111-11111V111--1111-1111111111
-1-1U111111-111U
111-111
111--1
1-11-
1--111111
_::^:
^:^^_:^^_:
:^:^:^^^^^;^
:^^^:^^^:
:_^ ^
:^^^:
11-111
-1-1-111-1U11-
-1-1-1-1-111--1111-01--
U1-1111U
1-1-11-1
:^^_^;
: ^ :^
^_^^^
;^:^:^
^^:^^_^^
:;^^:
:^:^^^^^^^
111-1-11111-
111--1111
1-111-11---1--11-11-
--1--111111-11
,11--1-1-
^^;::
;^^^:^:
_:^^^:^
:^^^^
Z:^^ :
Z^^^^:^
-1-1-
11111-1U
1-11--111111--11-111
11-111--
1111111-
U111:V
-11111
11U1-
:^_^^_:
^^^:^:
^_^^:^_
:^^^^^:
11--1-1-11-11-1-11-111U1
1-111
-11--1
1--1-1112-1
11U11
1111111111U2
,-1-1-
: ^: :
^^^_
^^^^^^^^
:^^_:^Z::
111-111
1-11111111-11
1111-1-1
11-1-111
1-111-1-1111U11111V
U11111
1-1111
^b :^_^:
^^:^^^^_
:^^^:^_^:
::^:^;:
:^_^^^
^:^_:
-111--
1111--1--
1-11-1
111-11111--111-11-1111111-1111
12U11U
111--
:^^:^;
;^^^^:::
:^:^_^:^:
::^^::^;^
111-111-111-11-111-
1-1-1--1-111-1
111U111U
^:^:_:
-1-1-11-11111-1-
11-1-11--1-111111-11-1
1-1111
111-1-
^^b
:^^_::
: ^ :
1-111--1-11-11-1111U
1-1--1-1111
11U1-1----119]
::^^^^^^^
1-11111--11--1-11-1--1111-
11-111
11---1
111111
;>^^^:
:^::^:::^^^ :
::_^:
b^^^^^^_:
U1--1111-
111-1111-
1--11
1-11111-111
^::^^:
b^^^ ^^^^^_
111-1
11-11
1-11111111-1111U1
1-1-11
U1-1-
b b b
: :^_b
_^^^ :
_^:^^c
:_^^^:_
1U1-1-1
1--1111-11U11
1-11-1
: :^^_
^;:::
b^^^^^^^:^^^:
:^^^^;
^;^:^;
111-1--
-11-111
11-119-
-1--9
^_b_^;
^_:^^
^^^^^_:
^^ ^:
;^^_^:
>_^^^^^^:
Q1111-1
11-1-91-1
11U1-111-
11--1
;^:^_
^^^^^^^^;
-111--,-
11111111
^~::^_
^^^^^_
_^:^^:_^
^b^
1-111
_b^ :
: :^^
:_^^::
-1-1-11-1-1-11111-U
1111-
:^:^^::
;^_::
b_^:^:
b^_^:
:^:::
-,1-1111-1-11
1-111111
^^_ :
:^^^_^
,11-1--11-1U1^1-U1
b^_^:
^^^:
^c^^
:^_^^^:
--11-1
11111U1-
^_ b^
^^:^_^:^^^:
1-111-11
:^^^
^:^::V:^;
-11-1-1--
111-11-
^ b::
1111112U
: ^ :
b^^^^^^
^ :^:
-11-11U
U1-11
^ ::^
:1-111--
^^^^^^
>^^_^^ ::
^^^::
:_^;:
_^^^^
11-111
11-1111
11111
:^^^^_^_
:^^^^^:^_^^^
^_^:^^:
^;^^_:^^^_
:^^^:^
-1111-1U1
U11V1
: ^: :
^^ ^
:^^^^:
;^^;^ ^^^
^_^^;
^^_^
^^^^^_
::^;::
_^^^_:^
[^^ :^::
^::^:
^:::_
-1U1-1
1V11111:
:^^_^:
^_^ :
^^_^^b^^;b::
^^^^^^
_^^_:
:_^b^
:^^^_^^_
:^:;:
::^::_
;:^^^^^
^ ^ b
^ ^ :
?^^^^ :
b^_^^ ^
b^^^:;
^:^_^:
:^_^^
:^:::^
:^:^^
:^:^:^:^^^^:^^^^
-1111^^_::
:b_^
b^ ^^
:^_^ :
:::^^:_:^^_
:^^^^:
^^ ^:
^^^^^:
^^^^^:
:^_::^:_:
:^9-1^
^_^^_:
:^^^:_^:
>^^_:^;
^^^;^^^:
^_ :^;^b:
^^^_ :
^^^^:
^;^^^
_:::^^^:^_^1:
:^^^:
^^_^^^
^_^ :
:^^^^:
^^_^_
:^_^^_
:^:^:_
^c^^^^^^^
:^^^^^:
::^^_b
_^^_^ :
b^^^:
^^^:^
::^^:
^^^ :
: ^^^
^^^^^^
:_: ^_^:
^_^^^_:^
;^^^^
c:^^^^_
^^^^^^c:
b ^
: ^;
: : :
f_^ :
^>^^_^^ :_
;::^_^_
:^ ^^:
^_b^;
^ ^^:^
b^: :
:^_^^
^^_b^
_^^^_
^ ^
: :_^c
: :^c
^^::
:^^_:
^_^_^
^b: ^ :
: :;
^ _^ :
_b^^^^
b^^ ^^:
: ::^:
;^^^b^:
_:^^:
^ ^^^
:_ ^_
:^^^_
b ^
^^ b
: : :
: ^:
Z^^ ::
^^^: ^
: :^^^
:^_^^_
b^^^b
^^^b_
b_^^:
^^^: :
:_^^
^_b_
::^^^^^:
^^ :^_bb^ :
_ ^_^^^^
^^_^^:_ ^
: ^^^
;:^^_^
^ ^^ ^^
b^^^ :
:^^^ :
; ^^>
^ ^ b
b ^ ^
^ :
_^ ^:
b_^ :
^ ^^_
^ ^
: ^ ^
: b
^ : :^
^^^
^ ^
Zb^^^
^b^ :
b^^b^>
p352-1
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 1: Development (page 1)
ftsTitle
The Benz Motorwagen (1885), the first practical petrol-driven car. It developed less than one brake horsepower and could achieve no more than 16 km/h (10 mph).
The Motorcar (1 of 6)
1. Development
A motorcar can be defined as a passenger-carrying road vehicle powered by an internal-combustion engine. As such, its history extends for little over a century. However, such vehicles owe much both to the steam-powered vehicles that preceded them and to the horse-and-carriage. Features essential to the success of the motorcar, including wheels, axles, spokes and suspension systems, had all been developed and improved in earlier types of road vehicle. It was only when these features were linked to the recently developed four-stroke engine that a motorcar similar in essentials to its modern counterpart could emerge.
In late 1885 the German inventor Karl Benz (1844-1929) announced his Motorwagen, a single-cylinder, petrol-engined tricycle. Although the immediate impact of this invention was not great, its significance cannot be overestimated. Within 10 years, dozens of manufacturers had appeared; the first motor race - the 1895 Paris-Bordeaux-Paris race - had been run; and the rich were buying cars both as status symbols and as a means of transportation.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
\lTtllll
2U\^>^j
]:Y::
HH$8\`
Ltllll
Hl,8t
a ^^:
0]::-
y9$Pc
UeM<^
llllH
9^:]:Y
lHHH8
]]x8:]:-1
1UA^P
}VQ8:
]:^:^
^:::^9
:\]I0\^
:^:^:^::
9^:^:9
99z10
VQ8b^]p
1]:9UT
9\91Q\
>^:9^
b-P8^
^:]::]
l$H0\QH1b:U1:
\::L0^>
]>:^:
:bb:92I
]llltL
HI1V:>
lH:b:
Y:b.-|
:::]::^9
>HH:_
QI9:^
^::b$-
BR,ll
l _]:
H<=f:9
x]bRu
U]y0_1p91:9^
$Q<^b
^:9^:
1--\uL^
~9^-:MP]:
9]]:b,%
-UfH, pa
\:::V>H
51^::Y
^9:]^:
HF^:]
]:Q,)
-U,1U
Pt0xL
8^alL
1]]btT1(B
llH$H
-99:]
-9Q8V
9]9x8]
:$\8^
B^:^::]
lllll
9^:u>
]:]:9^::9^9:
:]:^:
:Y:]:
-\u88
:9_]]
1U::U^
:]9I$
(lB^:^
9^:]:^:9
:]:9:]:^
::]:9^9
:^:^:.
-9]: 9Tll
:9^:]
tTtUy
-T$ll
^:]9^:
:::9^:^::Y
HHHH$,
lllll
\\Ut>
TUT0:
1-1-1
H1:U-T9
:^-$0]
^::9]::]::
9:::]
^9^9^:
9^::9^99^]
V1-0V
8]%I8
:^:^>y
^::]9:]:9
:9^:Y]
,9UPT:
a:1-]
$H,\b
0^=]-a]:V>Y
9:^::
9^9^:9::::]:::1:1
9^::]99Z^:^:
:]9^:
9]9::9
9^:9]9
2Tx1\
0]9U0
H,-\:
]:^9]
99^y1
U9:\-
ll$TPx1
y89)T:
Q8^Qu`
lllll
19$^:
IH8Pllll
9:^:^::
-9]:^
^99:^
9)yyQ\
Iu$1^
(QHa_
LxQ8]
9U0\:-0
)P<^U
U$t,H^:
:]:^:
^:^::]
9]:9]98]
9^9]9V9
1--T(\
:]:U9^:
]:^9:
9^:Y1
^99^:
]:^9^
^9:V9
]9^2T1,
$HHPHPI
]pPHP
^::^:
::]::
:]:Y:^
^::^:Y:^:
Y1:]UQ8
-]]::
]:9]]
^9:]9^:]
]9:]:]
,T\-L
$,^MP(
HH8x-]
:H8tH9^
]]jy%1
:::9:
9^9:^:
b^=^>
^999]9
}\^:Y
$-:^>^
]]:^:
:]:^9
^:]9^:
]99:9
HtLlH
]Tux%
)TT1f>%,`U
91:]P
:^:^:
:]::]
:9e:]:^
9]99U
:^.-(
lllll
y\TUPm,Q
,\Pa_
99]99
T---1
2Y9^:]
TyH,%
]m,I]
]9^:9^
:99^:
9::9V
:]:^:]
lltllL
q,$Rj
Ul%PaH
,x\]>^%1
9\lPll
]::^:
::9^:
99]:2
llllt,
9^>%I
11:^:
U,]:V
HH1-zFa
]8yHP
\^:Q198^
a`]]>
:^:^]
y:^bmT
lP`T-H-$^:
H(xPP>
1U:1$]0^%
]::^:
1]-,(\1
P1]%I1\
>b:^:9^
P8L8UVQ
:1%,I,8T]
9::^9:^9
^9^9^
-11::^
9]:9^9
-1P-t$
l0e6V
^-8\P
PLT:^:999
11)PPQ
lllll
\^:m-LU
:9^]]Z]9
0:]2^
91:^bP1
y:R(Q]
9]9^:
p]:^1
y]ytV
lltll
^]]\\)$
$HlxazT
Pq-y]
:]:9>
::^:]
^:9::
9z,]:
1H$\:
0T0$$
:9^::
^9^:9]
,llllll
qu%P%T9`
1-:^blll
^:Y::
]ym$`
:jb^a]
lH01x,
-99bjm
:9^9^
^9:^9
::9]9
HH1g9
tllll$
H$THTHPH
$,M-L,)P-
V2^2UT0P
=a:^99
22QHl
p%::^:
9^HH8
UT\tx-tt
tQ-Hll
^:?Um
T,pH%l
:Y:^:
:Y9::9
:29^9:^
]M$bZ:
(T:^9
lllll
1U1xYx=T`0
tLl,lPl
llIm%m1
HytUyyQ
PH$Q,t9LTu0
9]:]9
9^:9]
:]LH:^:
:,MT1-\:
>U1-89u,9\
:9:]:
:^:^Y
HHT8:U9:T01
9:L91
I<U-M
::^: mlll
:^:^9:
,uL9Y
]T0uH\2U2P0V1-]a
b_>^:^
:^:::
^:^9^
99^:]
^9:^59^
z]x:^
I891U
9l9P-
^9^::
:9]:99^9
90T2?yU
:T1U9
1,TbH-
y%,\99
:^]:^:
]1]::^
^9^:a
H\a:^
-L=^U
1--I-
,%tP$tt(,
PL$%Q)H
^:9^9^Y
^9:^9
:]9^:
Ut8Q8]
l$$%111u0-
P,L1PTxP\,
P\T\8
l\PT0
H%Q1y
:^99^9^
011^Z:
x\U8x
8T8\T88
8y8x9\
9]8a9=1T-,
HHPxT<
$e^:^
^2:::
b,ll,c:^
I%U%y
U::Y9
]1UxxU
=Q$T1:Y
lllll$
LUIH\T\
999:V^
:]:]:
Y91U1
9^9]9
HH8^:^^y0:b
1Hb?9
0`\]1
$ltt$8
]tq-b
^U:::^9
9:^:^Y9:
I,P9L
I%QH1P
THH,,
^::]::]
,L-::
,m,p]
.:^>]
1:^9]
\P,T%.^?>
lH\xP-V:
lHx:^1
Q$-y\
x]x01
yTQ0yU-8
-$u018\4
TIH2Q
AP),I
:^:]:^::]:
^5-1U
9]$I$-x\0U
ulTT:zT1::
xH,)%V
^:]:^=V
Hlllll
tPM2BbUH
-t$\0
lllll
U%--\8U\
a%IPT
-HH01
:]:]b
lllll
1yQP0-U$
%-H0T8\:
y,,^:
::]9:
lllHLtt0
8TPT0t
$%\\$%
Pa:
xQqt1
TllH-
9]:^9^
a\9\]
]l$:1$
$\-p$T
U%T0-
HlH$0
-8(P-P(
\ytpm2^
:b:^:I
HQT1U
)9lPL
]1-0QT
10-H,
--1$$8
l]Tlll
HPTu1
y:u11
y:1]5
IPL9T
Q$1x\T
Q(Q10T
$lxQx
u>^::
Y%%ll
x]VY9
^Uyll%
-0\0U
]-$I01
au19b
V-0^]t
1P0U,H%T-
Q]9mH8
$T111P)
]1%-l\T
-111l
Y2>Hll
tT^:>^Y
0Q191-88
,-L$8
9-H-$\
P-(:Q=
$^Bb1
HHIt]
12]9^
:]%ll
)-,T1,
llI-^^:^99^
H$\>m1
%8\)Q
--txU
\m%>b
Q0Q$Q01
11t-T
tH,I.
PH1-1
-0xUluMxtaVH$
01-101
-$%\M
1Q$IT
9:>tll
$TH-P
9]>mll
1I9T0
I>:^1^
PyTu\l,
ml0]$m
m%^:>:M
at\^9P
-9%H90
$lPHll
9HxPHy
8yI\2-q\
,ptlH
--HuL8T0
lHHHH
$$lm8
tpPtLHH
-P\UH%-HP
0$,lPLl
Tx%Q2R2^
tp,Hl
$l$8Z
PPPp,
-$t$$8
a\%P9
$Q050
lllll
P]0\1y-
pPx-$
1%pQTx),U89
($H,Q0T9\0T1
H$%I$
%M,IlP,8,
HllllH
tllll
$llH0-1p
x1T48}\
1\]\1\9T
yTtllll
HlllH$
,$$PLP
PlPPp0
Qllll$
b]t)-
110TT
x0$lll$
$$,xP
$$ll$$HPt
$$$$$-pU
x0x0|T
,$H$$tl
$$$$l
$l$l$H
,,Hl-u
lPT,L,
$$$H$
HH$$t,Hll
HH$$$$
H,$$$
H$Hll
T]x8x]PtI
,$$$$
p0H$l
lxx8x01
V:?eTl
8\]\0y,-$
P$$H$
P$H$$
T8]=9T9,-lt,lll
|l0$H$
81x-H,$-
,$H$P
t$tPxlT
lllPlHHPP
$$$,$
HHHHH
H$$$$$
H$$$\T
llttlyl
xTt,%$
$$ttP$
$H,$,
$$$$H,$
$$$$$l$H$
$lt$$$
,$PPll
TllPp
$$HH$$
$tHl$ll
$$$$$lH,
H$$,$$
$$$$$
H$HH$
$$$$$
llH$tPpll
$HH$$$$
$$,$$
HHHH$
$P$llH
$,,L$
$,$P$
llxPmPu
8llTt
8-H$,Q
a\8\\
$$$HH
$,PpP
lHH$$
HHH$$$$$
$,lHl
HHllll
lltpl0
axUP1
\a90xu,
l$$H$H$
H$$Hl
P$$H$
llHlt
HH$H$$$
$,P-Pll
,$H$$
$HH$$$H$$
HHHHH$$$$H
$H$$$$
lt,Hl
$$$$$
$$HH$$$P$$,P
(PtT,
x9^blQ>
^:9xH%
-u1V9
$$$$,Q
PHH$$$
HHH$H$$H$$$
$$$$$$$$$
H$$$HH$$
HlllT
$$$$,$$,
$HHHHHHH
lH$$$
lPl,HPH
$H$$$
P$$$,$$
$$$$$$$
$H$HHH$
H$$H,$$$t
HtHHlH
9lllll
$l$$,$,
$$$,$H$
HHHH$$$$$$$
HH$tl
H$$,$
$HH$$$
$$$$$$
,$$PH
$H$HH
$HH$H$$
Pl$lH
lll$0\2
$$,$H$
H$$HH$
t$$H,$
PptpH$
$lH$$$$
$$HH$
$,$$H$HH$
HH$$$$$$$
HHHHHH
HH$$$$,
UP, :^
$H$$,
$$$$$$H
$$$$$,$,l
HHHH$H$H
H$H$P
$HlH$$$
$$$$$H
$H$$$$$
$$$$HH$
$H,$$
)f::::
llllP
$H,$$$$$
H$$HHHHH
$HH,$HH
$H$$P
HH$H,
$$$HH$P
P01 b,U:
H$$$H$,$$$$,$$
$,$$$$$
HHHH$P
$$H$HH$H$,H
$$$,$l
$$PHH
H$H$$H
%llll
$$$$$$
$$$,$$$$$,H
H$HH$
$$$HH
Qlb:b
$$P$H$H,$$$
$HHH$HHHHHH
lHHHHH
$$$HHH
Vllll$
HH,$,$
H$HHH
HH$HHHH
$$$$$
llll$
$%QIIm
H$$HHH
$$H$$H$
$mIQmy
NRIImQ%%-IR
HHH$HH$HH$$HH$$$$H
$H$HHHHH
P$$$H$H,$H,$$$
H$H$H
H$$HH
HH$$$$HH
,$HHH$$
$HH$$$$$$H,H$$P$$$HtHHHHH
H$H$$$
HHHHHH
$$$$$
ma:^:^>::
$$$$$H$$$$$$
$,$$,H$$$$$$$$H$$$$$$
HHHHH
H,$$H$,
H$H$$H$$$
HHHHHHHH
b::^:]:
$$$,$,$PH$
PHHHHH
HHHHHH$$HH$
HHHHH
$$H$H$
HHHHH
Pb::^:
H$$$H
HH$HH
HH$$H,$$
H$HH$
$$$$H$HH
$$$$$$$
^B auz y
: yP^;]Pt
$$H$$$
H$H$H
HHHHHH
$H$H,P(
HHHHH
$$H$$HH
$$,$$
l$$$,$
$$$H$
$$$H$HH$,H$HH$$HH$t$,$$$H,H
$$$$$H$
Px0lH
tVxB::
$$H$$,$$
$$$$H$H$H$H$$H,$
$$$P$H$H
$,$$$ll$
Tllb^>^:
$$$$$
$$H$P$,H$H$HHHH$H$H$$
HHHH$H,H$,H$
HHHll$$$$H
lH%I$ml
]lU:^
$$$$$$$,H
$$$$HHHH
HH,$$$$$$
HHH$H$$$
H,H$HH
pH$$$$
l\^:^
$$$$H$
$$$$H$,H
HHHHl$$$
,$$H,HH$H,$HHHH
$H$H$
PLP$P
xP]>::
$$$,$H$P$
P$$HHH$$
P$P$$
lHH$$$$H$HH$H$H$
HH$$$
^yl^:b:Y
b%llll
H$$$$$H$$$$$$$P
$$H$HHH$,
l$$$H$$$$l
$H$$$$HHHHH$$$$$$$
$$H$$
$$$H$
H$P$$$$$$$H
$$$$$$
$H$$$$H$$$H
$$,$$PH
H$HHHH$$$$$$H
l$$$$$$Hl
yPl^>^
$$$$$,$P$$$$
$H$P$$$$,$PHH
HHHHHH
$$$$$,$HH
QT:9:^:
$,$$$$
P$H$H$H$H$$
HPHHH
PH$$HHHH
$$$$H$
lllll
$HHHHH
HHHHH
P$$$H
PHHHHHHHH
PTbB
BPll]:
$$$$$$$$$$$$H
HHH$HHHHHH$
HHHl$
]-tl$H
1\ ^x9::
$$HPH
H$H$HHHHH
$HH$H
-]>-a:
Illll
$$$$$$H$
,$$$,$$$
tlHH$
:^:bT
y,^:?
$$$$$$$$$$$H$$$$$$
HHH$,HHH
VU:^:^
$$$$$$$$$$$$$,$$
H,HHHHHHHH
t$$,$$,H$
1QP9^MU8^
zT]:9
^:^::
$$$$$,$$,$$$
,$$HH
$H$$H
y0T:vU
T=9]9^
:::^:
^2::^
H$$$,
,H,$$
$$$,$
$HHHHHH
HHHHHHHH$H
t\^9::>:l
^^y09^:
%Illl
$$$$$$H$
HHHHH,$HHH
:::^:
Mxa$$
$$H$$$$$HH$$
HHH$$$$$
H$$PHHHll
::^bt
llltH
$$$$$$$H$HHH$$$$$$$$,H$H$$
$$$HH
lt,xy-\:
^Pq09
$$,$$H$H$$$H
$H,H$$$H
t$$$$
$$$$$$,$$$$HHH$H$$H$$
$HHIl
llH$H$H$
H,$$$H$HH$HH$$HHH
$$$,$HHH
$$$HP$$H
$$$$$H$$$H$
HHHP$H$
H$HH,HHH
L,$t,
HH$$$$$H$P$$HHH$
HHHHHHHHH
P$lllm%PI
$$$$$tH
$H$$$$P$$P$$$$$H,$$$
$$P$lHH
HHHHH
,HHH$
uIP$$P$H,
$$lH$P$$H$$$HH$,$HH
$$$$$$H
HHHHHH$$$
HH,HPpPP
,H$H$H$
$$$$$
$$HH$H$HH$$H
eu\qu
$$$$$H$
$$$$$$$HHH$H$$
$$$HH
$$$H$$$
$$$$$H$$
HHHHH$
$$$H$
$$P$$$$H$P$$H
$$$$$$
$H,^:
$H$H$$$,H$$$$
lPH$HllH$
$$$$$HHHH
$HH,9^
H$H$$
TPP$$
$$$tP$$$$
ll$Pxl$lH0
$,$$$
llllP
lllll
Pll$lt,:^
lllll
lPl$Ha:
p^ ::
Hllll
$$,t,PLx
llll$
UPHPt-
I$llll
xTxP,PP
$PTtP
$ll,,L
lllll
:$,T\
\8`8^
ltpTl
tH$HH
Pt,\T
HlUx,QHH
pxQt-
$,$HH
x,\8]1T,8T
\]^:::
tPxPL
lPH1,
9Y:^:
9`99]:
$$$lPtP
(HHL$$H
H8^:]
UT\8^9
$H$$$$
I}Uu.
$,$ll
llllH
P1-T,
:::;^:
$HQIu>
2T$|-
(x-0t
H,Q)tx1xPy
]>A=Abf
8:^:^:
)%%%)
x9<]9
8PL,T
p352-2
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 1: Development (page 2)
ftsTitle
Model T Fords at Ford's first moving assembly line, located at Highland Park, Michigan. This photograph, taken in around 1913-14, shows the use of the exterior of the building for lowering the body onto the chassis.
The Motorcar (2 of 6)
1. Development
er pace. Within 10 years, the 'horseless carriage' had replaced the horse as the preferred form of transport - at least for those who could afford it. The awkward tiller steering with which the first cars were equipped was abandoned in favor of the steering wheel, which was much easier to operate. Engines grew in size and the speed of the fastest cars was now well in excess of what any team of horses could muster. Even the cynics who had dismissed the car as a passing craze were beginning to realize that the day of horse-drawn vehicles was nearing its end.
A major landmark in the history of the car came in 1906, when Rolls-Royce produced the 'Silver Ghost'. A seven-liter, six-cylinder luxury tourer, it was capable of traveling practically unlimited distances with complete reliability, often at speeds of over 100 km/h (62.5 mph). At the same time it offered unrivaled comfort, looks and quietness.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
,111-
1--11
-,--1)1
Y1111-1
1111-U-1--
11-1Y-
1---11
-1--1
-0-1-
1--11
-,-1Y
11-1-U
1-T1-1-
--0-1
T111T11
-1-11
-11-111-1-
111-9-1
1--1-
1---,
-1,11
-11U1U
0U111
-----1
-1,U---0-1U-
UU11y
-Q11P1--
-11--
11U^U
1P-1111
1-1-1-
y11U1
-1-1P-1-
U1-1-
-]UQ-
1-1--11
Q)U11U1
-1U--
-111U
-11-11--1
--11M
--U1)
1-1-1
-11U-
1-1)Y1
-1111
1-1-11
1)-Q11-1111U
--,-11Q
Y11y1
11-11
y1y-1
111U1
1U1U1
1-11y
-P1-1
U-1UU-
-1-11-
-Y1111U
1---0
1U1U-
111-Y
--1U1
U1-U1
--111U
1U1111--0
11U11
-1UU-1-
UY1U1
-1U11
-1U11--
111111
1-111
--11-
1-1]1y
111-Y
1y1U1--
--1Y1
Y-1UU1
--1-1
1111Y11
11-1U11U
-111U1-1U-Y
T1M11-
1U1Zy
1-111U
111111-
1111U
-U1-1U
U110y1-
-1U-1y1
--YUY
-0-111-
1-11-1
T111-1-1-
U1y-1U1
)11--
1-111-11
1-11U
---YUY1
1]-11-
111--1T-1
-U1-111-1
-1-011
---1--1
1-11-1
-11]--
-11-1
1-1UU
T1U1-1
U1-1U
1U1U1
1U1--
1y1-Y1U11111
--1-11
1Q11-
1Z-1U
11U11
-11-1
11--1
-1-1U1U1
1-1-1y1-
1-11T
11)1111
1U1U1
11-1-
11-11
1U111
-1U1111
-11U0-1
-1-1-1
-11U--11
-111U
]1U1U
]U11U
111UU
-111)TU1
Q1-1U
1-1-1
1U1U1
1)1111
1U1:1
1-,-1
1---1Q111U
111U11
1-111
1-1UU
UU-1U]1
-01U1-01U
-1-U1
-11Q1
111-1
--11-1
-1U11
UU11,
U1-YUY1
Y1--1
U-1U111
1y11U
y-111Y
YU11-
111--
U1U11y1MY11
11U11
1-111111
]11-1
1-911
U-1Y101-1
y-0-11
,1Y11
-1--Y-1
1y111U
-11U1
U1111-1Q1-10-
1111UUU-
1Q1Y1
UU11U
-U-1U
UY1-1y1
p352-3
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 1: Development (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Mini. Following the Suez Crisis of 1956, petrol rationing led to a demand for smaller cars, and BMC's chairman asked Alec Issigonis to design the smallest possible car that could still carry four adults and luggage. The result was the Mini, launched as the Morris Mini Minor /Austin 7 in 1959 and still in production today. It established the engine and transmission layout used by almost all subsequent small cars.
The Motorcar (3 of 6)
1. Development
Mass production
Up until 1908, the car had been very much the toy of the rich, far beyond the reach of the less affluent. In October 1908, this situation was dramatically changed by the American industrialist Henry Ford (1863-1947), with the introduction of mass-production. Instead of individually hand-crafting each car, he designed a car - the famous Model T Ford - that could be made on a production line with standardized parts. Available only in a single color (black), each car came off the line in around 90 minutes. More than 15 million Model Ts were made in its 19-year career, many being sold for as little as $250. By the start of the 1920s, every major manufacturing country had started to produce cars for general transport, rather than for the use of a privileged minority.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
1-1-^U1
-1--1
--1U-1
UU-1U-
U1y1U
11U11
U-1--
-1)-1
11-U11
U01-1
-1-11-
1Y11(
1-11-
1-U1U
11)-1
-1Q-1
-y11Y1
-P1-1
-11)U
--11y
Y-0U-Y
-1U11
1-11-
1-1--1
1-11-
P-1P1
11QY)
-UU-1
1--1-
1-11-1-
11)--
U11-1
-1-1-1
1--11
-11-1-
-1-1-P11--
-11-1
11--1
,-11--1-
-1-,1-U
11-1-1y
U11-1
1-1-1-
-1-1U
,--11-1
Y--11
-1--U
1--1-
U11-11-
1-1-1-
11QY1
1-11-1
U1-1U1
-11)-
11-1U1
-,-1-U
YU1-1-1Q
11-1-
)-1-1
)-1Q1-
U11--11
Q11-11
--11,
,-1Q-1-
-1-1-1
-1U--
,11--1
U1Q1U
1--1y
1--Y-1
-1-11
-11Q1--
,1-1-
U1-11
-11-1
-1-1,--
)11)U
11-,1
-1-1-1
11Q11)
1--11
11)--
-1)1U
1U11U1
-1--1
Y1-11
1--11-
-Y(1-
11-1-
-11-1-1U1
1Q-11-1
y1-1-11-1
1-,-1
-11-1
-1P1y
T1-1-1-
-11--
1Q--1
U11U1
U11UY-
-1-1U
1-0-11
1y11U
-1-11-11
-1-U1
1-1--1-
U1-11U11
--11U1-U
1UU-1-1-
-1--1-1
1-011
1(1Q1,-
--1)--
-1U-1-
-1U1U
U1Q11-
1U1-1-
1-,--
--1--
1U-11--1
--1-1
U11U1U
-11U--1-1
1-U-1
U1U11
01U11-1
1Q1-1)T-
11-1--1-1
-1-11-1
-1U1U
1--1-1U
U1-1-
-11-11U
1--1-
U1-11
y1U1-1Y
U1-1-
1--Y-1Y
U1--1-
--1-Q
,1-1-1
P-1-11
11-1-1
-1--1-1U
-1Q--
1U1-1
-1-0y
1M-1-
-1,-1
-11)1)1-
11-1-1-
1-11-
1y11U11U
11-1P11U
1(-11--1
11Q1-1U
-11-11-1
T1-1--1
-1-YU1
)-1--1
U1U11
1)-1U-1-
M1-1-
-,U1-
Y-1-1-11-U
1U1--
1-1-11
1-U--1
)1-1-
1U11-
11-U-
-1-1-
-1--1
11)1U
-1UU-
U1--1
1-1,U1
1-1U1-y
1--01-11
-,1-1
11-11
-1U1-1
1-1-,
11--1--1-
UU-T1U1
1--1,-101
1-,-,-
0U1-1
P-Q-1
U1-1-
1-1Q11-
11-1U1
Q1Q1-
1Q11-
-11--
L11-1,
-1--U
U-1)1
-1--1-U
1-1-1
U-1-1
U1-Y-
-1-,-1
11-1-1
-UU1-
1-1--
1U1-,
1-1y1Q1Q
-1-11
-11-1
Q11-1U
1U1U1Q
U1-11
)11-1U
-UU11
-1Q-1
Y1U11
-11U1
^U11Z
-11U1
U--1-
U11-1
1-1U-
1-11U
1,-1-
1U1-]
1-1--
11U1U-1-
(UU-1
-1-11
U1)1U
-U-1y11
Q1)U^
1--11-
-U-1UU1
--11--
1U1-11
L1--1U
-11U1
-11y1-11--
11U1-Y-1U1
-1U11
U1-1-1
--1-1
-1--1-
-1-1-
1-11--
1T1--U-
11U11-
-1--11
--011-
-)-1--1
11-1-1
1-1-1
-,11-1-
1--U1-
-11U1U
-1-11Q-1P-
-11,1-
-11-1
-11-1-1
-U-11
1-11)1y-
1-P-1
-1U1-1-1U
U-Y-1
-U11U-11-1
-11U11y
11-11-
11--1-
-0-11
-1-1U1
Y1U1-
y1-y1
U1-11
1-1-11-
1y1-1
1-11-1
11-1--Y1
1-1U1U
11-1P
-11-U11
,1-Y1
11Y11Q
11-1U1U-
U--1-
--11-
1--1U
-1U1T
11-1U
1U1-1Q
1-1--11--1
-1]-1
U1-11
1-1-1-1
1-1-1-
y1-1-
11-11
1U1Y--
1-,-1-1
--1T-
1-U-U11
Q1-11
--1-1U]
1-1-11
1-11-11
-1-0-
U1Q-1
1-1-11
11-11
11-1-
U1)U1
--1--1
U1-1-1
11-1--
1-11--U
-1-1-
11Q1-U-1
1-5--
1--1-
1-1--
-1-1-1
11-Y-
-11-1
1-11-1
-1Q11Q
-11-1-
1U--1
1-1-11-
--U11-
-y-11
T1-1-1-
--1--11-1
U1-11
-U1--11
1,1-1
1U1-11-
11-11
-1y1-
1M11-1-
T1U1-
--1)1-
-0-,-
--1-1
11U11
-,1--
-1U11Q
1U1-U-0-
-1-1-
1-U1Y1U
,11--
-Y1U1-1-
M11-1
1U1-1-U
-11U1-
11U-U
-Y-11
-11U-1
1U1-Y-11-
U11-1
11P1-
11U1-
U1-1U-1-U
-11--1
1U-1U
11U1-
1-U-1
11T11U1-
-11)1-
)T,-1
(U-U1
-1-1-
U1U1U
p352-4
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 1: Development (page 4)
ftsTitle
The Audi Quattro, when it was first introduced in 1980, became the first mass-production saloon car with permanent four-wheel drive. This capability, combined with its 5-cylinder 2144 cc turbocharged engine, made it a highly successful rally car.
The Motorcar (4 of 6)
1. Development
The age of innovation
Many of the features that make modern cars comfortable and safe were developed in the years between the launch of the Model T and the start of World War II.
Independent front suspension, which no modern family car would be without, was first introduced in a practical form on the 1922 Lancia Lambda, although it was not common practice to fit such systems until after 1945. Supercharging was pioneered in the 1920s by Mercedes, who also put the first diesel-engined production car on the road in 1936, in the form of the Mercedes-Benz 260D. The French company Citron produced the first successful front-wheel-drive car in 1934, when it launched the Traction Avant; today, over half the cars in the world use their front wheels to transmit power to the ground.
The evolution of the car progressed rapidly up until 1939, but during World War II the pace of innovation slowed dramatically. The only real advance at this time was the further development of four-wheel drive in the form of the Jeep, which - thanks to its power being driven through all four wheels - could traverse terrain that would be unpassable in a normal car. After the war, manufacturers found themselves turning out 10-year-old designs; it was only as the 1950s approached that innovation began to return.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
U01U0
]1U11U0U11
0U1U9UY10
T11]101U11
U1T11U1
U10U10
U0-1U1T
U1101
U11T1U1
1101910
011U10U
T110U10
01U11
U0]1]1U101
11U0U1
]U]U1U
T11U1U
10U10U110U
110U-
T1U10
U101U10U11
11T10U
0U1U91U01U
1U1T10U1U1
0U1U11U11
-]1T-
T1U110
11U1T110U1
0U101U0
0-11U0
T1U1191U
01U110U1
10U1U
U101U11
]1U10
19U11T1U0
01U11
T101U0
U-0-110U1
U1011U0
1U9U]1
]19U191U
1T11]10U
1U0-1T1011
T11U1\
U01U11U0U1
U011-1
01U0U-1T
019101T199
1T1U110U1
110-U
T1U11
U11T1U1T1U
U011]1011U
1U0U11T11U
1101U1
1U11U
11T11T11T
1T11T
T1U01U91U0
11011U011T
U1]10U-
U101U
U1U1U1U1U0
U0U01
101U0
1U1T19
--1U01U10
91U1T11
U11T10U11U
T1U11]1T
0U0U191U81
011U1-
U11U011U
110110
01T1-0
11U1-
1U11U101U
011]1U11T1
01U11U0
01U11
U0U110U191
0U01U01U
1T1U119U
1U110U
01U1101U
T1U1T1T
U011U0U-0
11T11U
11T11-0
T10U1
1U10U1U
U0U11
T11U1U
0191]]1
1T11U910U1
T1U0U
]11U1
U1U10U01U1
U0U0]11U1U
U1T11U1T
11U0101U11
U10U11
T1U1101U1U
0U11T1U
U0U0-1
1-11T9U1
-0-10
U1U1T1UT1-
10U1101U1
U11T10U1T
0110-1T11U
11011U110-
T11T11Y1T1
T1-011
0U1011U1
T11U1U1
10U11U10U1
1]0U-0U
91T110
T1U1T11T10
U11U0U
11T110
T11U01T1U1
9y1T1U0U01
T11U11U11T
1,110-10-T
011U1T
0U01UY11U1
T9UY1Y10U1
01U0U
0-011U10U
1911T1U1U1
1U1-1-9
U19T11T
U1U19U1919
U0U011T11T
,1U11T1T9
U11U1
1U1T1
1T1U]1
01-01U0
-1-0-
U0U10
019U0
U1T11T1T
11]1]
9U10U110U
01T19U1
1T1U10U11-
01101
U0U11
1101U91
U-01U1
1T11U011--
0-1-11
0U1T1U1
-0U0-
T1U1T
T11U11U11T
U101U
T11U1
T1T1011T1
0119U11U1-
10U10
U11\11T1U
01T11T1U19
U9U1U101
0U0U11T101
U0-01T
01T1U1T
11U0U1U0
1011U11U-
U1U1T
U011011
0101U
-0-1-
0-1011-
U-01T1
1T10U1T
5101U1
0U1U1U1U19
U1U11U8U9U
U1U1U91
U101U-01U1
T1-0-U0--
1-10-
1T11U
11]11T1T
0U11U191]1
U1011
0-11-
1U10U11U
U11U0U1U
U1U01U11
U-0110
1U11U
1U91101U1
0U1U1U1
-011011-0
U1011T
011U10U9U1
1T1-0-101U
1101T
T1--0
10U10U
]1U1T11T1
T1U0U1U11T
1101U1
10U1U1T1
-01U0
-011T
-0U101
1U1T1
U110U0
T11]1T11T-
191T1
0-1T1U1T
10U9Y1011T
0U1U011-0
U1011U01U-
T11U1011
U110U0U
1]1-0-
10-0U1
0-1T10
U1U101U
1U1U10
91U110
U101U
U1T-1-0
11-01-
U1010
U10U10
11U10
1011U
011U01
-0U11U11U
U1011U1
U101U1
0118U0
U1U10U-0
1-0U1U11U1
U11T10U1T
0U1011
T11U011T1U
1U01U1T119
1U1U1T1
1U011-1
1U11U0
U01U0
U1]11U
11T10
1U010U11T
T1U1011T11
\10U91T
U0119U1
11T11U
U101-0
T1U11U1U1T
-0101
-0U11010
U101T11-
T1T1T
11U110U
11011U0
9U1U0U1T11
01U01101U1
11U0110
0U110U11U1
10U11
11T11
U01-1
U]U10U1]11
011T1
U11U01T11
0U0110U11-
0U911U1
T1U-0
U1U1-
1U10U
01U1T1
0U1U1
1U11U
U11-101U0
11U1U1U10
U101U-10U1
119U9
T1U10
T1U1T11
T11-0
10U1T
U09U9U0
1U01U1U
U0]11U10U1
U1U11T19
01U011T1U1
0U1T1U0
1T11U11U11
0U10U0U1U1
011-011U
-1011011
011U10-
-1T1U11T11
U101U01T11
01T1T10U1T
1U110U1T
U11U11T1U
U10U0
U11U1T
0U1U1U1T11
U11T1
U110U11
T11U1U
U0U11U119U
01U91U1
T11]1]1
U11U0U11T
T11T11
-1T110U11U
1T1U91
U1-0110
1U01T1U0-1
]19]11U1U0
U-0-1,
U1U1U1
T1-11
19U01U1U1U
11T11
U1U1T1
T1-1-
1U11U101T
U0U110-1U
01011T-110
1U11U
0U11U0
0U11U1T11U
U10U9
U91U1U1T1U
110U1911]
011011T1U1
T10U11U110
1T11U11T1T
11011T11U1
-011T
10-110101U
1]11U11U1U
1-T18U
1T11T
T11U1T1
9U110
T11-11
U1U01
11Y1U1
1U10U011T1
T11T11,1-
110U1U101U
U1101U11]1
U010U91U10
0U1U101U11
U19U1T
10U11U11T1
1T1U11U01U
1T1-0
T1-10U11
U10U1]U
10U101
T110U1
U10U1
U01U01
T11011U
U110U0U1-
U1U11U01U
U01U01U1]1
0-11U101U1
1T11U1101U
01U01T110
1011T1U
-0U1T
1-1-01
0U10U0-1T
1T1U-
1-011-1T
1T1-1T1U10
U1U11U11T
0U0U1101U0
101U1
01U1T110U1
U11]11U1T9
U1]1]11U
10U11U
U1-11T11-1
10U1T11
10U011T1U1
1U1T10U10U
-01U1U0
11T11U1T1
0-011
11U01
10U1T
-1-0U1U010
011U1U
1T1T1T
T1T110U0
U1U1U0U11U
1-1011-
U0U1U01101
1U101-0U
T110U01U0U
1T1U501U
10-1-0U
0U10U1T
-011U
-1-1U
1T11U01
11011--0
0U91T
U11-0-1-
U1U1T11011
1T1-1
T1--1-
1-0-0U101
11011-
-0U0U
T110-1U11U
UU1]1U0
T11T110U0U
1T11T
T1-01-
0U01U11
T1U1T1T
1-1-11011-
U0U-1
0U10U11U11
U1-1-
11T110-
1U011
0U101101T1
10-10U1U1U
10-0-
011T10
1T110U1U
T110-
1-11-0
-1T1T11T1U
01011T1U10
U1U01U
T110U
U01U0U1U0U
U11T11
U11T1
1T11U
U0U101101T
U011-0-11
U0U1U1-
U110-01U
U1U0U1U
U1T110
U101-
-11T1U01
1-U011
T1U1U0U0
1U1]11U11-
0U11T1
1T11U11
U1-U1
10--1
0U-01U1U1
-0U1,
1U10U1
011-1T
U10U01T11
1U1U11-0
11U11T11
U11-0
1U1101
U0U0U1
-T1U1011U
011U11U0U
T1-0-
1U0101U
U0-1U9
U11U1
T1U01
1U0110
110911
T1T11]
0U11U11U
19U0U11T1U
101T1T1U1T
1-1T11T110
1T1-1
1T1T110U11
01011]1U1
0U1U11U0
U1011T
11T10U1
U1U11
U11U1
01T11U0
U1T1U
U1101U
101T9U-
U01U0U1U1
9U019U-19
U10911T11U
011T1U11
1T110-1-
110U1U9
1U0U1U1U1U
1T110U
U11T1
1U0U0
1U1U11-0
U1U0U
0U0U11
U1T9T1
T1U1T9
T11-01
1101U0
U11T1U
01U01101T1
U101U1
U11U01]
11U010
1T11U1U091
-1-,1-
U101101T1
0U9U0U0U0U
91U01U1U
0U0101U0U0
11T110
U1011T1U
1U1U9U1
0U11U1U
T1T11U11U
U11910
01U011U1
U1U11011-0
1U1-0U1
11U1U1
]11U1U1U91
1T11T11U10
U011U10U1U
91U11U099U
0U11U1
1UT10
-10U11-0U
U1011
U1U11U
U9U0U10
Y11U0
9U0-0U11U0
1U119U1011
-1011U0
U110U
9119U11T11
U11]101T1U
U11T1U
T110191
0U10]11U11
011U91U0U9
U1U1101T11
U11T11U1U1
]19U19U1T1
U19U9U
1U1T110
U10-10U1
01U1T1-
1101U0-
0U110U0
T1U0U10U0U
11T1U110U
119U19U1U1
1U0U01U11U
11U01
U0U11
T11U0U
T1U1U1U1T1
U1T1U
U1U1T
01U110U1U-
T110U1
U11U11T11T
1T11U1U10
U1011U11
9U11U10
T1U110119T
10U01T1U11
T1U0]1
U1101U01U
T11U0
1T1T1U11U
011U1U0U0U
0U910
T11U0U
U11U10
U11U01U10U
1011U1U0
011011T
119T1U
U0-1T
1T11T11
U1T1U
1U110
11T11
-0U1T1
T11U1T1
1011-11-
U9U1011T11
T1101
11U1T
U1T1T
1U1YU11U1
1T110
U191U0
U1101U011
01U1T
0U119U10U1
91U9]10
U19Y1U0]
0U1]11T
U10U9U1T
U1U1U0U
01U11U11T1
U1U1U1T11
0U01U101
1U11U1
U1U1]1011U
1T11-1U11U
5U11U1T
U9U1U0U
U011U11T1U
11011
U011U
11T11U1T
11U1U91
UT10U0U1U1
T1T10
11U101
U19U01U01T
01T1U10
1U1T1U
0U1U10
T1U1U1U11U
9T11T11T
T1U0U0
U1U0U1U1
110U1U
10110U1U11
0U1101
U11U1-0-11
0U01U9
T10U011U
1T110110U0
UY9U0
T101-01T11
01U01U1
01T10U
U1U1U9U01U
1T1-1]1]1T
U010U9U1T1
0U19U19U90
U11U01T1U1
1]1U911T19
11011
1T1U1T1
11T11
11011T
]1U11]
11]11U1U
U0U1]110
11U1T
11U011T1U
U1T11T
01]10U
U11U1U
9T191U0
U0U19U11U1
101U101U0U
U1T1U01
U51T1T1U1U
11U11U1U1U
01T11U0
11U01T1U1U
011T10U-
1011-0
1U101U1
1U11U0U011
U91T1U11U0
1U011U1U1T
U1U110
0U11T1
10U90U1]1
9U11U11U11
0]101U11U1
U10U1011T
51T11T
5U119U
11T91T110U
91U1U9110U
0U011U011T
0U90U1
U0U10U1U1T
1T110
U01U01
T10U1011T
T1T1101U9U
11U10
1]1U1
T1T1U10U1T
U11U11T
11U1-0U
0U01T
1U11T1U11
]1U9U11
10U1T11U
0U119U01
01U1U
T11U91U19U
0U91U11]1U
11]1U01U11
01]10
U110U11T1U
11]11
1U11U9U1U1
0U911T1T
T11U01U1
1T11U
-9U1U11
1T11U0101
11U1U18U
10U011-01
U1T11
1191U110
T10U10
0U101U
U01911
U91U11U11U
8U11U11
011U9U
01U0U11U9
U11T11
0]1]11U
11U01U
T9U01U01U1
101101U
10U11T11T1
U11T1109U1
U0U011011T
11U1T
11U1011
01U18U1
0U01U
U01U910
U01U01
101U11U
1U011U11
01T110U1U0
U0U11U
U10U10U19U
U101U11U1U
T9U0U11T11
T11\1U19
U11U0
1011T11T11
]11U91U1T1
1T1U11
U19U119U1U
U1U11U1U1]
1U1U011U0U
11T11T11U1
U1T1U10
011U0U1U01
1U101U1T1T
011U10U10U
-1101
1T10U1T
11011U1
1T1101U0U0
11T11
1U1010191
U11T11
0101U1T11
U10U1T1
U9U15]1]
U1U9U9
11UU1]1U0
U11U1T110U
101U1U19
T11]11010
]1T10]119U
1U01U1U
09U1011
110U11T
T11T11U10U
19U11-0U1T
01U0-
1U11U
01U01U1U01
U011U10U11
9U191T91
11T1T1U
T1U10U0110
U11U0
U011U191
1U1U1]
1U19U4U11T
01U011U11T
11019
]1U11T1U1
1101U11T
U01U11U1T
T1T1U011T
1U1U0]19
T1T1-T110U
10110U101U
011U1101U
U1101U
1U10U11
01U1U10U0
T9U1T1U1
011U1
0U1101U
011U1U19
U11U91U1]9
1U11U01U1
T101011U10
U0U11
T1U1U1-
11U01U
0U0191T1]1
11U0U
U11U0
U0-1U0191U
1U110
11T10U1U
T1U10
U10U1U01T1
T11U0
U1U10U1U
0101U110
011T1T
U11T1U11U
1U1\1T
U1\1U10
01U10U01T
0U01T
-10UU1T
011T10U1
U1101
1U1U1
U11U1U11U1
U11U1
1U119U
U1U1U11U
11011U101U
1-11T
91T9U0
0]10U0U1T1
0U01U9U1
U0U1U
011-0
T110-1-0
1U11T11
U011T1
9U1U9U
191U1
0-11U
1T11T
91T1U11U1U
U101U
U1101U
01U11
1-1U01
-11U181
51U1U1T1U1
U1U1T1]118
U011T1
U0110]1
0U1U0101U0
-119U
U1U1U91
1U11U
1U9U1U
U0U1T
]0U011
-011U1
11U11
9Z919U19
11U1U
11U11U
U11U1
U1U11U1U11
U11U1U
U-1T1010U1
1]11T1T11
U1T10
-11U1
11U11]1
9U91U11
1U11U1
11U1U1U
1U11U1
1-1U11U1U
-1-1-
19U1U15U10
-11011T1T
0--0-11U0
U1U110
U1U10101T1
10U011
1191U1
1U11U1
11U1U
U1U9U9
U1U11
U-1-1
10--0
11T1T101T1
T1010U
11U11
U1U1U911U1
U1U10
U1T11
1T1U110
U110-
1U1U1
1U1U1]
11U1-1
U11T11-1U1
1U9119
U119U11]1
5]1U9
11U1U9
]1U1U
T11010101
1U1]11U
11U1U
01-0-
U11U19U1]
11U10
-1-,-
U110U1U010
U11U1
11U1T
U11--1
11]119
0U911
11U11U
--11--
51U1U0
U11U1U
--11--
:U:^1
1-11-1
119U-
-1-1-
-1-1U1
1191U11
]1U19
1b b
9-11U9
^9^b
U1U1U
19U1U
11-11
1U10--0
0U11U1010
UyTP1P
f f b
y0-0Q
t-P1P
-0-1--
1-Yb1
:]11-0u0
QT1y0U1T1
U011U
0U11U
01-1U0
:U11M0U
0Q0U1
]UY1U
-01-11011-
0U1U101U11
U9U11U1U
1]1U1U1T11
U1U1U
0-0-T
T1T1U10
11011U-1T1
1Y1Y1Y91YU
11U011U11Y
U0U11U
1-0--
T11T110U1
11U11]
11-1U1]19
]Y11U1]
U11U011U
U1T10U1T
T-01U
1U1U0U
1]U9YU1y1
T]U1YU]U9U
1YUY11U10U
-T11-,-1
T110U
1U11U1Y
0U11U1
0UU1U
]11^b
Q0U1UY9y
1U1U]U1]
T11U1U
U1U9y
Uu(y9U
y1-01
]qt1x
11U1U
9y9UU9y
y1y9]
]UU11-9
Qx-yY
1]U0y1
U1y]1T
U0U01U0
y9y91-
]ytUx
UY11-
yPyU]]U
y11TUU0U1
T11Y-0U1
UU10U0
U]UU]y1
U010y9Y1-1
UY1U11U
y1U]Y
U,1y11y
]yU1U11
1Y10UY1
11U1T1
U10U11
]y9yy
110yUYUU
0U1UY1X
1--01U1y01
y11UU1U
y9y9yY1
11U11U1U
Y0U1U0U0
1U01U11T1
]UY]U]
U1y9y
]y9y1
T--0U11y11
U1T11x
0U1y101U
1U1-U10
U]y]U
0U11x
,U1T11
Y1U1U1
1T110Q0U0y
UUY]TUU0
11Q1-,1P1
1y9yY1TU
1U10U11P1P
]U0U1
y1U9U1]U
0y11y1UU
]y1T1U
0U11x
11Y11T10U0
PU10-1T-U
1y01T1Y
y1y1U,1
-T11T1T1U1
01011U
1U91U1]
91U10
U10U01U
1U0U1U]U]y
,UT-U011Q0
UU1UUYy1T
T11P1T10U1
y101U1U1U1
1U101
U01U01U9
-T1-T1
]1-11
U0U,UU-T
UT1T1U10y1
1-TU10U
-11U0
1]1Y1U1
19UU1]1U1U
]xU0Q
U01U,UU1U1
U10U1T1T1-
T11010
y1U0U]
1U1,U
U011,U0U10
U0U0U01P11
U10U1P11T-
01U1-
1U1U9y
]U01T
U,U-1U
]11U-0-1U
11T1UU1U1-
0U1,11-0Q0
U1U0U--,
-10U1U
9T1U0U
T11,U,U0
11-119:^
10110-011T
11010U01T1
,1-T--
191T1T
-1T1U0
0U1T1
1-1-0U-0
]U1]YU
U1Y1U0U11T
U0y1T-11U
11Y0U0
> :
0-11T1
1]11U1191
]1]1911-1T
U0y9y110
1-1^
11-0U-
]1U011]1
1T11T1T
1U10-
01y1Y1T
1UY10U0U10
11U9]
b > : :
:]11-
-1U110U1-
-1-1T11
UT]U1U
T110-110
U91^ j
bB >: ::
11010
U119Y
bg >
01UY1
cf > :
-1-1-
cBc: :
1-11-
11-1-
U11U1
b b_
119191
-10U1011
--1--
-1-1-1-
-1U11
Y91--
U11U1U
:2:2:
U5]y9
2:^::^:
^::V:^:^:^
::^2:
^:^::
V:^2^:V:V
:^::2^:
V::^:^:_:^
::^:^::^
^:^:^:^:^:
:^:^:^
::^::^::
^^::^:^;^:
:^::^;^
^:^:^:^:^:
^:6^:^:^::
^:^:2^2
1U1--
:^::^::;
:b:^:;:^>:
^;:^>::^:^
::^:^:_:^:
^:^::^::^^
::^::^^2:
:2::^:
2:^2V:
::^;^:;^;^
>^:^:
:;^:^?
^::_::^::^
::^:^:^
:^:^:
^:^::^:^
^:^::V
:2^2:^
]]11U--
-1191^:^::
^;^^:^::^
^:_:?:^;:b
_:^:_
^::^::^::^
:^:^::^:_:
^::^:^:^:^
:^::^::^:^
^:^:^::
^:^::
:2^::
;^;^;^;:_
^:_:^;
^:^:^;^:^>
^:_:^::^:^
;b_::^::^
^::^>:^
:^:b:>^
::^:^:^:^
:^:^:^:^^:
:^:^:^2:^:
2:^:^2
^::^:^:^:^
:^2^:2
_:b:_b: :c
^_>_ :c::^
;:^?^;^; :
_:c:>^;>_:
;:^:^:cbc
:^:^:;^:
^::_:^:^:^
:^::^::b::
^:b^_::^::
^:^:^:^b^:
:^:^::^
:^:2^
^:^:^:2:^:
-01--1Y1
9U1U-
:^^c:
;^_::_:;>_
:;^:;^:;b:
_::_::_:>^
;^;b:>^;:
: ^;^:^::_
::^:b:^;
:^::_:>^::
^::;^::b
^::^:^^:
^:^b^:
>:^::^:
^::^:^:^::
^:^:^:^:V:
^:^:^:^:^:
:^:^:^:^
^:^::
::^:^:^^
^:^:;:^::
1-011
?^?:c^b
>^;>^
?^;^?^:?:^
c:;b;>_::
::;^;:b;
: :?:;^:;^
>:;^;:
:^::^::_:^
:^::^::^:^
:^:^:^>_>^
:^:^:
:^b^:b:^:^
^::^:^
^:^::^::^
^:^:^::^;:
:^::^:^
^:^::^:^:^
::^2:2
:^::_?^^c^
cB^c^_:b;^
: ::b_b: :
;>^:; :c^?
:>_:>
_>_b^;^;^;
^ :^ :_>:_
:c:: ^:^>^
?:_::^
^::^::^:_
^::^::^;:^
b_^::
^:^:^:^:^
^:^:^::^
^:^:^
^:^::^:^:^
:^:_:^:^:_
::;:^:^:^:
^:^:^:^::^
^::^::^:^:
9Uy9U
1U]U1]U
U]U]y
2U:2:^
:?^>^:c:>
?: : :^ ;
: :cbb :?^
:^:?^:c:>;
?^;:c
: >_>;^
> :_bb;>_:
>^;^;^^:?^
;^;^;
>:_>^:>
:^::^: ::^
>:^:^:>
b^:^
:^::>^:^
^::^:^:^
:^::b
:^;>:
>:^^:^:^
::^:;^::^:
_::^:^::^
^:^::^::^:
^:^^:
-11-11
]U1y]UU
1UU]U]
]1U1-
:^^c:;^?^
;b;c:
?^ :b_b_b^
b;b:;^:;
?^b_: :b
^: :c^b_b:
;:_b^;^b^c
:;>_>::;^:
>;b:>
?:^::;^:^:
^^b::^:^:^
:^:^:b:b::
^:^::^
^:^:^::^:;
:_:^::^::^
::^:^::^
^:^:^:_::^
:^::^^:^
U1Y1U
2^:^_
?:c^c:
c::b;b:c:;
b^b_ >
>_>:?^b
^:b:>_b; :
:_::c:^;^?
::_:^:^
:?^:c:;b
>^>^;>
:^:b:b:
^:b;:^>^^>
:^:b;
^:b^^_^:_:
^:^::^:^_:
^>: :^;^
;^::^::_
^:^:^:^::^
>: ::b^c
1Y11]1Y1
1]UU1
:^ > >
>_ :b_?
;b;b^?
^?^:_>
: >^ :c:
:c: :c
:_ ^ ^b^c
b: _>
>;^;:?^_^:
_:b :^?^;:
;:^:_:>
^:b_: >
> : :
f:^?:
>:^>^>
>^:^^b
:b_^ :
:^:^::^:
^:^:_::^::
;b_>:
;>^ :^;>^
]1Y19
919UY
1U11-
>:c_>
^?: :b :>_
> : >^?^
bC :?
>c^b : : ?
> : >^c
;b^>:
b; : :>
b^c^:b;>_:
>;:_>;
:c: :?^:c:
>^>^: :>^
>^::^::^;>
:>:^b_>
::^^b^>
^>^; :
:>^:^:;:^
:c ^b^c^ >
: : >
>^c^?:
:c^c::
1]1YU
;b;c:b;^?
:?^?^?:;
?:_ :?^?
^? :cc^ :?
> b; ^
b : >
c:?^ :c
:_>;^;b?
^ ;:^:b;:c
:;^:c:^?:b
_b: :_b_:>
_:b_b:
:: :
::_::^::
:b:^:
:_:^::
c::^::b::^
: :_:;^b_
: b^ ^>:
?^ >^
:b^cfb
1Y1Y11-
;b;_>_?
^?_>^?^ :
:: ^?^ :>^
;bf^
?^?^>_b^?^
b^: : :b_b
^? : >_b^c
> :cf^ >
;b_b;
>_b^ b
:;:^:;^:_:
:;:^;^>
>_::_:^;>^
c:^ :>^>
^: :^:c
:>;b
: :^;
c:^;>;:_:
:_ :>_b_
: >^ > : b
:cf b
f: > : :
: : : :
: :b_^>
_b: :b
2:^;:
;^;b;c^:?^
:;>_>^c:?
: :_>;
:c; :c_b;
?f : :>
Bb_b?fb >
bgb bg> >f
;b_b^c
bfc>:>>:
: >_b^? >
>_:c:?
^>;>^;^:c:
>^c^c
>;^:_> B_b
b:?^;b:; :
:^>:_b_:^:
^: : :
:_::;^>;^>
:^:^ :
:_b: b >f
?:: :
?b_b :
^ > B
>^ : :
_:_:^;b:^;
::>;_>;b;^
;:_>_:b;c:
^;>^ :?
>B >;>
: > >
b bf?f_>
f^ >
f :
^f^cf
b : :^
:;^;_:_:?:
_:;^ :>
>:c: : :b_
> : :
?^_^:^::
:^ ::
: : :
b^c:: ^ :^
:; ::c
: : fb >
bb^ > cbb
> : >fc
: : >
: : : >
-11--
^:_:;^:_:
:;^;>;^;^;
^?^:;b;>_>
^: ;>_>:?f
b_b > > >
b bf
> B >g>f?f
?: >fc
?fb >fb
> >f> > :?
^>:>:>^;b:
?^>_> >
f_b > : >_
b^>_:c^^ :
>f_^:_>_
bb_b:
: ^ :b;:
>^ :^ :
: : :^?: >
B > >
> ? > ?
?f : >: :
c^> :cf_ b
_ : > : >;
: : >
^:;^;:_::
^;:;^;b;
c:>;b;^:_b
>;bC^ b
b b b b b
:_>^c:
>b B
: >_b^c^c^
c^bC^ : >
> : :
:^?^>^
:b_b_b_b_b
>^ : b
bf f b
C >
>fb c> :
> : : >
b_bB >
b::_::
_>;^;^;^:^
;:b;^^;^::
>;>:>_>
>:c:^?::c
>g:b; :b_b
f> > >B >
> >_f^
cf^ >
>_b: >f
? > ?
bf bB
: > >
:^b
>:_::
^;::^?:?:b
> > b
b b bB
bf > :
> b >
: : : :
bf?f ? >
> bB >
?f > >
> B >
B > b B_b>
b >f>
^ : > >:
?: : >
b> b b
?f bf
?fc
b^ >
? Bb_>_>
> c^cfb^c
^c^b^cb^ ^
bf > ^
bB >
?fcf >
fbfc^b_b >
>g^>B^c:c
^b^c: : >
> > > > B
: : b^ :
b c
> cf? > ?
? > > B >
? > ?
> fbC >
: : >
b bB bf >
> B b
?f> ?
> B > fc
C > > > ?
> b ?f
> ? b
:cfc: :
b bf b
? bgb
b > cb ?
bcf?
> > ?fc b
> bg
: : > : >
? cC
b b > >f?
Bcbf > >f
bf >fb b
b b b
b bf bf b
j k
j j
j j c
c cf
k
b f b
cc b
b b j b
b b
f > b b
j c
b b f
b f b
b b b
c b
j k
b b b b b
b;bB
> b >
b c
b g b
j kb
b^ b_bf_b
bgb
> b >
b b
b bf cb
b bf
b b
bf b
: : >
?f^ > :
bcf
j b
>_b^?
> ^ bf_
> b^ ^
_b fb f
b b f b b
b b
j j
b b
:c^>_b_
^ :
b b b
B bgb > b
bf
b b b
:b; :; :^
: : ^ : :
> : : b
b^ b
b b b
b b b
j b
b b b
j b
: :^ :^ ;
f^ > b
bC b
bf b
b bf
b b
b b
b j
j j
b >
b^ b
>^ :_b
B ^ > ^
b b f
b b
> b b
f b b
b
b f b b
c^b^c
:b_^>
: : : >
: bb f
b f b
> b b b
b f
b b
b f
b b
bf b
b : b
f b f
^b^ :^ : :
: ^ :
bg b
B b
b f
> f >
f b b
b b
::^;:^;^:
:>_:^>_^
> fc^ : b
b f
b b f b
b b b
b b b
bf b f
b B b b
b b f
b b b
j j b
^b :
b b f
?b^b b
?^^:b^b
:>:b^^:
:_::^:^::;
f b
b f
b bf b
> > b
> :
b b
b f
_b b_
bf >
^: :bf ^ b
^:^:^:^:_:
:^^_:^>^^
>_^> : >
f b
bc bB
k
b f ^ : :
: :^ :^>
::V::^:^
^:^:;
> fb_b
b b B
b f
b > fcb
b f
b b b b
^: : :
:>^ :^
:^::^:^2:^
:^:^:
: ^b: :
b f b b
^> bf^> b
f ^ > b
f bB bf b
b b b
j j b
: : >
>^^_b:^:^:
: : :
:b:^:^::
^::^2
::^::^:
^: :: ^: :
: :b
> b
: >
: >
j j b
f : >
b f b b
B_b^?
:^^:^
::^::^:
^2::^::^
:^^::
g^c b>
> b^
: ^?
b f
cf b
j b
; b^ b >
f j
b b
_b^ b
::^_:^::^
::^:^::
::^:^:
2^2^2
::^:6
:^::^^
f b f
b b b
b b b b
b b b :
?^b^c
b b b
f b f f
f_^b^>
^:^:b:
:^:^:^
^::^::
::^:^:
^:^::^::^:
B > : b
:^^::
:^b >
^b^b^
> b b
B b b f b
b b f
f^ bb
^::^:
::^::^:
^^:^:^
::^::^:^:^
:^^ :
:^:^:
:^::^:
:b^^:
f ^ b bb
b b
b b
: b f
^ bf^
b^b b
?f^ ^ >
:^^::
:^:^:^
6:2^::
^::^::
::^::
:^:: :
> >
> b b
b f b
b b
b :
> ^b >
:^:^::
^::^:
b: : >
b b b
> b :
^ : > b ^
: ^>^b^
::^:2
2:Y::
:V:U:V:YV
: ^cf
> :
f : : b
^ :b^::^
^::^:
::^::
U:2^:Y
2^Y2:
:2:2]2:V
bf b^ :
b^ :
: : >
::^:^:
9V:^:
::Y:2:^
: : >
: : ^c
f :
_b^b^
:Y:V:
:V:Y:
Y:^::
2^:2^
::^^:^
:2]2^2^
:^2^2
:V:YV
:U:^2:
V9V:1:V
6^:Y:
6::^Y
V292:2
:2:^Y:1
YV:1^
:V9V2
Y:V9V
:^2^:
p352-5
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 1: Development (page 5)
ftsTitle
Modern car design includes features such as independent front suspension, front wheel drive, anti-lock brakes, and improved fuel economy.
The Motorcar (5 of 6)
1. Development
Modern cars
In August 1959, Austin Morris launched the Mini Minor, which has profoundly influenced all subsequent small-car design. By mounting the engine across the chassis, its Greek-born designer, Sir Alexander Issigonis (1906-88), created a small car with more interior space than many large saloons of the day. The Mini also used the then relatively unusual technology of front-wheel drive, which obviated the need for a bulky transmission tunnel in the car. Today virtually all small cars use this layout. Cars have now evolved to the extent that most can reach speeds in excess of 160 km/h (100 mph) and achieve over 50 km(31 mi) per gallon. At the same time standards of reliability have improved dramatically, so that cars generally give thousands of kilometers of trouble-free motoring - and all for a fraction of the money it would have cost (in real terms) to buy an equivalent car in the 1920s. At the upper end of the market, many cars are turbocharged, fuel-injected, have four-wheel drive and are capable of around 240 km/h (150 mph).
In recent years Japanese cars have made the greatest technical progress, and the Far East is now the world-leader in engine-design. US manufacturers have had trouble shedding their reputation for producing 'gas-guzzlers', but are now designing economy-conscious cars with greater international appeal. Europe, the traditional breeding ground of car innovation and design, will have to change direction as the car evolves further.
The move is now towards cars that give out less toxic waste and do less damage to the environment. This has led in many countries to legislation enforcing the use on cars of catalytic converters, which detoxify many of the harmful substances in the exhaust gases. However, concern about the burning of fossil fuels and the consequent environmental damage is sure to continue, and it seems clear that the car will have to change radically in the coming decades if it is to survive.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
WTN.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"WTN"
defaultPage
fName
).tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Car design
**++*
zzUVzVzVy
zVyzVyVyy
zUzyVUz
UVUyVV
UOUOUUOUOy
Vy\yyUyU
zVyVUy
OUUOUOUO
VUzzy
yyz\yyUy
zUUOUO
OUOUUOTOUy
yUyUyU
zzUVy
OUOUOUUOUO
UyUUyyU
UzUyOUOUOU
OUOTOOTOUU
zzUzUUOUOU
NUOOUUyU
yzzyVyVyVy
UzUUy
yUyUy
OUOUONUNUN
UOUUyUzUz
zUVyVUOUUO
UOUOUUOUyU
UOUOU
OUOUO
yUUOyUUyUy
sUUOUOUOUO
UOUUOUOUyU
OUOUOUOUOU
OUOUUyUyUy
zVzUyUyU
OUUOUOUOUO
UOUOUOUUOU
UzUVOUOO
UOOUO
yVUUyOUUyU
zUyUOUO
UyUOUOUOOU
OUOOUNUOUU
yUyUy
OUOUOUUOUO
UyUyUO
OUyUyz
yUUOUOUOUO
UOUOUOOUUy
UUyUU
zUzUOUOU
OUOUOyUy
OUOTOUUyUz
sUOUOUOUOU
UUOUUOUUyU
yzUVUUOU
OUOUOUUOUO
UyUUON
yUzUUO
OUOUOUOUOU
OUOUOUNUUO
UyUyUy
UOUOUOUOy
yOOTOUUOyU
OUOUO
OUOUOUOUOU
OUUyUUyUyU
OUOUOUOUOU
OUUOUUzyz
zUVUVUV
OUUOUOOUOO
UOOUUOUOUU
yUUyy[yUy
zzUVOOUOUO
UUOUOUUyOU
OONOUUyUyU
zzVyVy
UOOUOOUOUO
UOUUO
yUzUyz
OUOUOUOUOU
OTOUUOUUy
VUzVV
UOUOOUOOUO
UOUOUOyOUO
UUyUyUyUyU
yUVOOUOUO
OUOUOUNOOU
OUyUz
OUOUOU
OOUOUOUOTO
zVUUOUOUO
UOUOUOUO
OOTOUOUUz[
VzzUzV
OUOUUO
UOUOUyUUyU
UyUUyUyVyU
zUyUy
zVUyUOU
OUOUOUOyOU
yUOUONUOUy
UUyUz
UPUOVUOUOO
yUyUyUUy
yVyUOUOOU
OUOUONUOUO
OOUOO
UUOOUUOOyO
yzUyUUyV
yzVUVOUOU
OUOOUOUsUO
UOOUOUN
OVOVOVOUOU
OUOUOUOOUU
yUyUy
OUOUOO
OUOyUzy
OUyUOy
yVUyVyU
yy[zU
UyUOU
OOUOUOUOUO
UUOUONUOUN
OUyUUyVy
OOUOUUO
UOUOUO
yUUyUyVyUy
VyyUyz
OUOUOUOOUy
OUOUOUON
VzzVzUU
UOUOOUOUO
OOUOU
OOUOUOyUUy
yUyUyU
UyUyyUy
yUVOUOOUOU
OUOUOUOUUO
TOOUUOUOUy
UzUzV
VOVOOUOUO
OUOUOU
UOUOVUPzUU
yVUVyUzU
z[zyU
OUOUOUOUO
OOUNUO
OyVUzUVy
UOUOUOUU
OUVOVyUUyU
yUyUyzUyyU
VyVUOU
OUOUOUOUOU
sUOOUNUOOU
UyOUUOzVUV
UOUOOTOUOU
NUOUOUPUzP
UzUVyU
zUz[y
yUzUy
UyUzy
OUOUO
OUNUO
OUUyUUzUtU
UNOOU
UzyVy
z[yUyU
zUUyUUy
UyUUO
OUOOUOUOT
UOUOUyOUVO
UPUPO
OOUOUUNUTO
OUUO+OzVyU
OUOyUyU
VUUyVyU
OUOUO
OUOUOTOUUO
TOUUOOUOUO
+UUzyUyUUy
yUOUOOUOOU
OUOUOUNUON
+TOUOUUOUy
yVUzOOUN
yUyUyU
yUUyUOOUOU
OUOUOUOUO
OUOyU
UOUUO
OUOOUUy
zVUUy
UUyVUOOUOU
OUOTOUOUOU
OOUOUUO
OyUUOUyO
yUUyVUVy
zUyUU
OUOUOUOONU
OOUOUOyUUO
yUOUUs
zUUyUyVyUy
UOUUyU
zUUOUOzUzy
OyUOUONUU
OTUOUyUVUV
UOUOUO
yUyUyVUyUy
Uz[yUUOUyU
yUyUUOUOUy
zyzUOUOUUO
OUOUUOUUOU
yUUOUO
OUOOU
UOUUyOUyOy
VUyUz
OUOUO
OUOUyOUyUU
OUyOUUyUOU
OO+OO+OOUO
UsUOUyUs
yUUyUUyUyU
yUyyzyUyy
OUyUz
zUyUUOUO
OUUOUsUOUU
yUUOUUOO+O
OUOOUUOUO
UOUUOyOUy
yUyUUyUyUy
UyVUzU
VUyUy
OUOUOUOVUO
UOUOUOy
yUUyUyVyUy
OUOUOUy
sUUOUyOUO
O+OUOUOUOU
OUUOUy
zUUyUUyUUy
zVyUUyVyzU
zUyUUz
yUyUUOOUOU
UUyUOy
OUOUOUOUO
yUUyUyUyy
yUUyUU
yy[zy[y
OUOOUUOyUV
OUVUOOUsUO
yUyUUy
yUy\yy
yUzUyyUz
UUyVUyOUOU
UOUUO
zUVyV
yUyUUyUyU
UyUyUUyUyU
UyzyVyUyVy
OUOUO
UyOUsUPyVU
UOUUyUyUyU
UyUUy
UUyUyUUyU
yUyUyUzUyz
zUUy[yUy
Vy[yy[yy
VUUyUU
OUUOU
zUVyVUy
zUyUy
yUyUyzUyyU
Uzy[y
zUyVUzUVUO
yOUVUy
UzUUyU
yUUyVyVyUV
zUUyUUzUz[
yUyyUy
VyVUy
UOUPUU
yUyUzUyUV
yVyVyVUyUz
VyyUyVUyUU
yUyVy
yVy[y\yUy[
VUzUVyUVyU
UVyUzUzU
UUyUyyUyU
UyUyy[y[y
VyUUy
zUzUVUzUzU
zUzUzVyVyV
yVyVzUzUz
yzUyV
zUUzUVyUyU
OUOUVU
yUzUzUzUzU
zUyVzUzUVy
VUyVy\
zUyzU
sUUVyUUyVy
VyVyVUzUzV
yVyVzV
yVzVyy
zUyUz[yzUy
UUzUy
zUVyVyVy
yVUVyUzyVy
VyVy\yU
UzUy[zy
zUzUz
OUUVyVUyVz
yyVyV
VUzUz
UzUVyO
yUUVyVyVy
OUtUy
z\y\yV
VyUUzUzU
UzUzU
UzUOUVyUVy
yVUzUz
UUOUzUUyVy
OUUyVyVyz\
VyVyUz
zUVyVy
UUyVUUOyUV
UzUUsVUzUz
VzUzUyV
yUzUz
yUyVUzU
OyUzUz
yUzUzz
VyUyUzUVyV
UzVyVy
UUyVz
yVUUy
yVzVzz
yUzVz
yUUOy
OUOUzzyVz
UzUUOUUzzV
sUVsVUtUV
UyUUPUV
VyVUVU
UUOUUsV
UyVyUzUVOV
VOVPUPUz
yVyUPyUOVO
VyUyV
VyVyVy
yVUUPUVUV
zVyUyz
zyVUVUO
UzUUy
zUyUyyz
UyVyUz
UyyUyU
zUVUyUU
zUVUy
yVyVVyUyU
zyVUVU
yyVUy
zzVUzUyUyU
zVUyVUyzU
zzUUVUUO
zUzUUzVy
yUy[zy
VyVUyUyyU
UUOUO
OUOUUyU
zyVyyzU
yUVUO
zUyUyUyUz
yUyyUyUUy
zUVUUOU
yzyyz
yVyVyzUyUy
yVyUU
zzUVyUVyy
VUVyVzyU
yyUyUyz
zVyUyy
yUzUUyUyUy
yVyUzz
UVUUO
zUVUzz
yUUyUy
zUUOUO
yUyUyUyz
UOOTNOUO
yUUyU
zyVUUOUO
VUOUOOUO
yVyVUUOUNO
TO+*OOU
UOOUyUy
VUyOUO
zyUVUUOUON
UUVUOUO
zzUUyUyUV
OUUOUyVyzy
OUOOy
zyVyV
yVyVyVyVy
zUVOUOOU
UUONUNU
zzVzU
OUNUNOUUzz
VVUOV
VOUOUTOUOy
VVzVUyUUO
UUOOUNOTOU
UONUNOUOUy
O+N+N
UO+N+0O*
OUNOTUyUU
+O++O
+UNOUOyz
O+N+N
+O+O+O
O+N+N+*OUN
OUOOyUyUzy
UO+O++O+
VVUOV
+*O+N+N
UOOUOyUUyV
zVzUVO
OUUyUz
yUyzy
zyVyVyVyUz
p352-6
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 1: Development (page 6)
ftsTitle
The Jaguar XJ220 (1989) goes from 0 to 97 kmh (60 mph) in 3.5 seconds, and can reach a maximum speed of 322 kmh (200 mph).
The Motorcar (6 of 6)
1. Development
PERFORMANCE AND POWER
The performance of a car is normally assessed on the basis of its top speed and its acceleration - how fast it can go and how long it takes to reach a given speed. The power of a car's engine may be expressed in several ways. The power (as a physical quantity - the rate at which mechanical work is done) may be expressed in brake horsepower or kilowatts (1 bhp being equivalent to 0.746 kW).
The power and the performance of a car are sometimes confused, but one is not always a
reliable guide to the other. Even with a seemingly advantageous power-to-mass ratio, the performance of a vehicle is largely dependent on how effectively its power is developed and then delivered to the wheels.
Basically, the efficiency of an engine depends on the mass of fuel-oxygen mixture that can be pumped through it and effectively combusted in a given period of time. This factor is known as the volumetric efficiency.
To this end a number of systems have been developed to increase the power output of engines without increasing their size. For example, supercharging and turbocharging both force the fuel-air mixture into the combustion chamber at high pressure. Multi-valve cylinder heads have also been developed to improve the volumetric efficiency or breathing' of an engine.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
T11T1
9U9\1
-01U0
1T18U
T1T9U
U1T1T11T1
0U1U91U1U9
U9U9U1]1]1
991]1]
191U9U9191
9]1]1]
11]1]1]191
51]1U1U11
U11U1
1U01U0
T1T11U
U11-0U0
T1T1T1T1U1
0U11U1U
911]1U
19U11
919U1U9U1]
1]19U191]1
U1]19
51U91
U91]1U1]19
9U1]1
1911]
U11U1U919
T1U901U
T11T9U1T
9UU11]]
11U01
0U11T1U10U
1U1T11
T119U1U11U
1U1T1U1U
01U11U
91U11T
U11U11U1]1
9191]11]
1]1U10
0]1T1
1U0U1
1T-0U1T1UT
T0110
T1U10U
T11T1\1\1
0U0U0U0
TU0U1U0
U10]01
U1T1T
]10U1U91U
11T1U10U
10U0]10U91
]1T910U
1T11901U
1T1T1T10U
11T190U10U
911T1T9U
199191
T1U01U0
U0U10U10U0
U91U0
]11U19U9U
1-11-1
99]9:]
Y:]9:
b^b9^
9U9U9
19U9U9
9^9^9
9^Y9^Y9
1U911
9]9]9^^b
f^b]9^
1--1-
]11U51
9U9U1
f b
U11]1
9U9]9
b b b j
11-11
1]9]9U9
1]1]1
:U9U99
599]:9
--:]11
]:9Z]
1-11-1--
:]^^b
-1-1-b
:]:]:
11]11
U911-
11-11
-1^9^b
>]:]9
11-11
-19:]]
-11-1U1
,-1U1
-1b]B
-9U11
-199:
U1-11
11-U1
915]19
1-11-U1
9U919
1-1-11
19]:]9^9^9
9]9Z9
1]9U9U1
U9U9U
99:]9
]:]:]:]
]9]99
:]Z]:9b
]1911
]9^9]
9U9]99
9^9]9^9
11]1-
1^9]9^9
9]9]99
]9]99
-11U9
91]1U9
]19]9]
:9]9U9
:^:^:^9U
]9^9^
9]::^b
f b
1]911
^9]9]
:99^9:
9^9]:
10]19U91]
9]9]9]9]9
]99]99]]9
19^b
U1191
T1]1]
-1911
p354-1
The Motorcar (1 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
The engine is the power unit of a car, providing the motion that is ultimately transmitted to the driven wheels. However, a series of interconnected mechanisms, including the clutch, the gearbox and the differential, is required to transmit the power of the engine to the wheels in a usable form.
At the same time, a number of subsidiary systems, including steering and brakes, are necessary in order to give adequate control over the movement of the car.
Most cars today are fitted with an overhead-valve, four-stroke, petrol engine, with four or six cylinders. Although the primary function of the engine is to spin the flywheel - the first link in the chain by which the engine's power is transmitted to the wheels - the rotary motion of the crankshaft is also used to turn the alternator, which generates the current needed by the car's electrical systems. At the same time, the rotation of the camshaft - again dependent on the crankshaft - drives both the oil pump and the distributor.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 2: How Cars Work (page 1)
ftsTitle
010yy1
19U-0
1y910
0101U
1-]y1
(0100yy0
\y1010
0)01y
0T0x009
xy-0-
)11x1x011
)0(00y
01xyTy
x1Y0yyx
xpx(00L(y
00-0y0
0)0yx
TxxppTx
x0101
00x1T0
00(0((
x0100)
0)y(y1y
1((10
00101
(00y8y0y01
0U00y011y
(00((x
10110x10
0x1yy-T01x
10y01
1x0yy-
10y1x1((
1(0y00
1y1x0)0(
T01yx1x
y0110
1100(
-0y00p
11U10
-00y00180
11(100
)0x10(
0(-yZ
0x10x
((9yx
001-1
()1(-
1001(
pp(pp
00-x1xy
pHpplp
0U00yx
pp(pl
$l(lp
-01y0y9xy
plpL(pH
0y00y0y00
(llplplpL
pHppl
T(010y00
pllLllplp
010y0-
8)l(l
plplLpl
001-0
1-01(
01yy1
$xz90
xMplp
plpl(
llppl
llplplplL
(00xx1-
x010-01
0T100
0-(0-
llplp
llplpplpl
(0)0(
xp0-01x10
$ppllp
1(0L00
lppll
pplLpl
0(1(1-
Z-299
010p1
(lplpl
(10-0(10)0
plpll9
qLH(p0
pllpplpLpp
)0U(10(
pllplplp
)0(0(T0(0
T)001-01T0
10(U0
1(0100
$pHlpl
(9y(p
0T)00
0)0-1x00
-01T0
10y0-
8qpll
lpplpp
(0(1(0
U(1(T
x001010(0
(T-01
plplplp
0T01-0(10
(1001y1T11
xxy01
10x0-0(
l$l(xy0yp
plpplpp
1001001U01
00x1x0x10-
00y11y
0x1y0y1
pHplpL0
lplpp
y10U0100x
x100)0
y0-010
(0((0
Lllpplpl
x-T1x
yy011
$pHplpLx
plplp
1x0yx
xyx100-(9
0101y
pllHx
qpllp
lLlpp
-Uy]y
p(llp
-0-0-
100U010x1
p09xpql
0(010y1
1-(0-0U-0-
100U0x1
0-00Z
(8U(p
y0(1-
(1x(0
1-01(
((T10p0x
1($Hx
T1x(($
pllplpx(0
xyxTxyxUx
(00p0p
(lppxppx1
x--]x2
Hllpl
00px(
--(11
-00-0
lplp((
pllpll0
Y11--
pllpp
p$(lp
lplpl
p9yll
lpllplp
U00100y
yxlplp
p$yy(
lpllpllplp
yx1-0
x010(1
$lplH
LllLlplp
(1(--
lL(-xqHpll
(xxpxx(
pxyxp1
010)(
010x-
(pplp
$ll((py
9-(0-1
x0((1xx
xZ($Up$(
(xyxpp
x0y00
00y(y
1x01x1
xxTyxyx]xy
y0)0U
xx0yx10
0xy00
xyxyxx0x
(x0x1
yypyT
y((9y
ppllpp
HpLl(
p0100
y010p0x0
1xx0(0T0
1x0Ux8
p9x0x-0((0
yxxTxT(
plpll
-0119
:lplp
lpplp
(101y-1q9
-0-19
((pxx
pllpp
pllplpllpl
0)-y-1
x10(0yx
lpllp
plpl(
-x(0y(0x
(xp0px(0((
x(0x1x0y0y
01((0
-0$lplp
lpllplpl
p((lp
y1-x18
-xy11
llpllplpl
llplp
y10110
U01-0010
plpllpH
xy((0
lppllpl
xx((y
pplpl
$L(Hy
0-0--
xppll
plpplpp
01y-0-0y
x10-11
((01U(0
lplpH
00-x0
yllplp
pplp($
]1x(x
)(xpllH((
p10-00U
pl((0
-0--T
0xy8y
-1y-(
Yp)$(
10yx9(pl
01010
p(p(H(0
ppxLxx1(qx
x)(pxx
T(xp(p(
lLp((p
pH(ppyB
x-00y0)
0(0(x0pp
00100(0(
plpl$
xx1L(0(
y-pxpp
p$px0
1011-
1x01L
x10(0((
plppl(p
llplplp
pplpp$
x101T1
plpll(
(lplpl(p
ll($l$p
y9y90
0y(T(1
$plp$
ppLpp
llplp
(xypxyx1
11y1x1
10((1
(0\91
-(lpl
x0qpx1
p$(p0
001y9y
ypyp$
px1xx
01-001
((L$((
llplp
ppy((
(00x1(
Hlp(1
yHlpH
((1(00)
-010x
lplp(
ll($-
(010(
U8yy0
((pllp
yppHl
01y01(0
((0)0T0
pplpl
010U-
(L(lplp
pxp)(H
xpxp((
((Tp\
x(p)0
)00)0L0
y001y
lpplplppHp
plplp($
(00(1(
L(($L
()p(p
Y9--(
llpp)(
pllp$(
H(p((
llpp(
(0x00
-01()
0x00y
((p)0
llpplpl(
(llplpLp
((0(0
$llp1$
(Hpll
((pyx00(p
10-0-
l-00-
0-11x
-01-00
((ppxxy(
9-010
y001)
1001(0(
0-xpl
xp(pp
yy10-1(
010pplpl
$0yp$
(1x0)
pxppqp0yx
y10L0
ppyyMLpy
y]x100)T
lpllpll
01-00
($(0(0
q(xyp(
yx(xxL
y01((
ppllpp
ppLppylp:
L(pp(
x100)0
lpllx
xppllLHLl
(pp(x
y1p((
H($pl
($pp(pyxpp
plppl
TppHp
(p($lp
yq(pp
pllpplp
p(H$$
(l$(Hlplqy
yxy0xy
xyy0xx
(1x(0
pllpl
l$($L
p($(1
(00)(1
)x0x0xU0yx
y(x01x
((p0y
1xy0x1xy
xx0xxU
pH((pp
)1y10x
1x0y0yxy1y
11(y0
0-(10
pllpllpp
yxUx0x
yxxTy
lplpl
ppllplpp
010xx10
1xxy00
10(x((
yxTxxyTy0x
yx0yxx
plplp
0((0x
T0101
Txxyxx0x
plpllp
$Hpll
-1y00x1xy0
0)(8q0x
(01xxy
0Tx10(
x0y0y
yxyTyxx]
yxxTx0yxU
plpLlp
pL(HpHp
lplpl
($((p
1y-00(
xx00Ty01(0
($lpl
plplplpllp
$p1lp
y001010100
010)xy
yT0yxy
(Hplp
pHppHp
0(00U0
xxyTy
xTx0xyTxy
p0x0yx
pllpllp
lplplp
Z9y1x
1010x
y\y1yy
yTx0xTx(xx
Lx0xyxp0x
pyLll
y0U0(1
L0((L0(1(T
yxyxx
y0y0y0
0xx(x0xyx
pllplplpxp
U0(1L00)T(
00(L0(0
yxyxx
yxxUxx0xx0
0qx1p0p0(x
pplpyp
-y0-0
(10(00
)(0((0)((0
xy0y0x1xx1
x0yx01xx1x
0x0(x(x(x1
0(1((
(0((0(
yx1xTyx
01(-9x
1y00((
yxxy0
0xp10x(xpp
x0x0x((yx
Lllplplp
yxx\xx
yyx0y
0x101xx0xx
y(p0(0x0-
0-0190
xxT0y0x1
xyx]y
x010T
yxT1x0y0
1x10xx0x1x
0p0x0(x(x
p0(x1-
xyxTxy
yx0y10
x0x0x
10x(0p0xy0
p0x(px(0((
\xyxyx]xx
yxTxyxT
yx0yx0yx0
x)0010(
xy0y0xxy0x
yxxyT
0yx0xy0y0x
y\xyxyxxy
xy00yxy0x0
pT(0p0
0xxyxUxx
0xxyx0
xyTxxyx0y0
0yxy0yxx1
10x10
1xx(0p
((0pU
yxTyp0L0(x
0xyx0y0xyx
0p0y01xyx0
y0xxyx0
0x0x0yy
ylyyl
01x((
(001xx1x-(
0xpxxT(
(x0y0xx0x0
1019y
p(lqp
x0xxy0p0x1
x(yxx1p0x
0p0p0px
yxxTy
p00xxyx0p
0xpx0p00py
x1xx1
xxyxxy
0xyx0x0yxx
0xx0xx1x0
y]yx00
yx(0)
x(xx0xx
0yxTx
((L0((p
0(x(xppx0x
px0px1xx0p
x0p(x0p10x
yx0(x1
0x0yy9
xx(10U10(
0xxp0
xx(xxp
0(L(0p00
xx(xpp
x0xx0px(x0
xx0p0qx(y(
x0(p0xxyx
y\p0xx
0x0x0x0x0q
0x1p0yp1xx
0(0-0)(x((
0(x0p0(x
)0(00(p
0(00(T(0(U
p0((0(0p1
p0x0px(x(x
0px0p0x0xx
0xp(xy0p1x
yTTx1
0x(xyx0x0x
0(x0xx0yx
p(x(-
q0(x(0px(
0px(0x(x
((xxT
xyxx0x(x(0
((T((0L0(x
(p0p00px(
x((x(x1p0(
x(p0(x(x(0
(x0xx
-00-(x0y
0p(0(y0x(x
x00p0q0x(T
x0(x01
yT00x
p0x(x
x(0p0(0T0x
x0p00(x(0(
x0(0p0(xyx
xx0p10
(x(p0(0q0p
0x((0p0x(x
0px0p0p0qx
(x0x0x0p1x
x0yxx00x0p
0)x(10xy9x
xy(0(
y0p)0)
p0p((x
x0(00p0(y
(0(px(x(x0
p0p0(x(
yxT(x0
0(xp(p
p0xx(xp0xx
(1x0y0
x1x]y
x0()00
xx0q0
p0q0x0x1x(
x0y(x()00(
x(0qxy
((p0(x0
yx0x1x(0(x
(p0(p0y
xx(1(
1x(0x1px1x
0xx0y0xx0
Txxyxx
xy0x0x0x0
0x(xx
p(x10p00y
)xx0p0px
p0x0p0x(p0
px(y0pT0Tx
x1xx0xxyTy
Y(1xx
yx\xxyx0
0xy0p0qx(x
1(p00(-0(
T((x(x0
xyxTx1
(0x)x0
0x1x00xx0x
yxU0xx
xxyxx
yxyxxyp0x1
xx0xp0x(0(
x0(x(x
(00(T(0
yxxTxx0yT0
xyxTxyxUxy
TxxTy(xUx0
p00(0(0
0(T-T
(x((0
xxyxy]xx
x0pxx1
TxTTx0x
0p(x(
y(0((x
xxyxyxyx
yxxyx
TyL0(00(y0
(10(10y-01
0y(x0p
0y00p0pxx
yxx((0
(0(0(
(x0x(0(00
-101xy0x9
-0y0p0Tp0
(00Lx
xxpxxp0((
(()0x
0x1xy
px10xy(px
00y(x((T
x0(01
y1xxqp(y
01x0(0(0(
x(00x(
pq($(x
()0((
yTx(1(Lxx
0xx(x(x
0xy9x
yx9xyx1x
0xyU0
1--0y0
qlplp
T(0(0(y1
p0p0(py0x0
0(x0p0
yx\yx(
x]xx0yx1x
0pyxxy
U(00p(00L(
((1x0
xpplp
Tx(0(x(x0
(0(0((0pp0
x(0(x00
(0y0(
y(x(x(
xyp00((L
1((1Lx00(0
0)T0(10)x(
108x1
100(p0p0p0
(x0x0
0p0(xy
x1xx-11
0x(0x(
x(xx0xx
(0(10xyx
yxx(0(L0
x0(0(0)0x1
(0y0p(0x
p0(0p
Tx0yx0y(x(
x(0yy
00(qx
0y)01
0p)0(
0((0((00
y0(0)(0()0
(1(L0(
0(0L(0(x0(
0((x(y0x0(
0x00p00y(
0xx0p0x0x
0p0p00py
px0(0((
((0(1Lx(0(
p00)Tp010x
((0x(x(0(-
pllpll
x1xp0x0xxy
]x(x0(
0xpp0
Y10q(0T((
x(x0Tx(x0
0L(0(0(00(
)00(1(x((0
(lppll
0yxT1x
yx(xp00(
p0(T((0p(
0(0Ty
yxx0yxxT
yxp0x(0x
-1001
((L0)(T
0((0(xy
\yxyx1x
(x(0p0
0((00
0(1((0
lpp$;
yx]xx
0L-0(0x
(0((0
yxy\y
x(0L0p0
((p0(1p(
(0(10
(00(xpLxx
pxppx
((xppx
lplppxy
pllpp
xyxyx
00x0()L0
lHplplpl
xyxx0y
xy0xp0y
0yT(0p1((0
1pxp0
x1xx1x0(
-)(0(
lplplx
((p($
(HLpp
10--0-
((p(p(
(01xUy
plplp
-011T-
10((0
ppllp
plplpT
pHp(ppx
(y1xy
pllplplpll
p(p((HLp(
0xxUxx)01x
0100yx
pLppl
-p(yy
Txxyppxppx
)x1xx
yx0xyp
x0(0x(x(xy
Txyxxyxy0x
yx0y0x
($H(p
pH((0(
yyp1y
(x10(0x(0x
00x((xx1(x
(00(0pxx1x
UxTx0x0x0
plpyl
(0T0100x
)xx0(0)x(T
0(00(00(0(
xxp0xx(Ty(
0(xx0(
y0(0y0x1
xxT01(
1(L00
(1(T0p00Mx
0(1(T(p0)0
xx0(0xp(0(
(U00yxx0xx
y0L0p0x0x0
0x0xxyxxT
0q0q($$
0x0(0(
(0(0TTM
T(0(0L0(0(
Tp00(0T0(0
0(L(0x
xx0pxx(0(0
p0(x()x0xx
0xxyxxyxyx
(1Tp(pH(
01(0((
T0(1(
((0T(0(T(0
0((0(1
((L0(x(x
0(0(0p0x(0
x0y00p0y0
Lpp(pp
plpllpll
pllpllplpl
pllpp
llH((
(00)(
(00)(
0(0(0(T((T
(0(0(L((0
L0(x)((L(1
(T0L0(01(x
xpxpp
lpllpllplp
plplpllplp
lpllplplp
0(0(0L
00((0
00(x0(x1(
lplpllpllL
llplplpllp
llplplLlpl
plppl
((0((
)0(00
pllpllplpl
pllppllplp
lpllp
0((0(
lplplp
pllplp
lplplplppl
lpplplplpp
lpllpllp
plplplpl
plplp
lpplpl
lplplplplp
lpllp
lplplplp
plplplp
plpllpplp
plplp
pllpp
ppllp
lpplplp
lpplplp
pplpll
pllpL
ppllplp
p354-2
The Motorcar (2 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
The ignition system
The purpose of the ignition system is to produce a spark of sufficient strength to ignite the petrol-air mixture at the exact moment when each piston in turn is nearly at the top of the compression stroke. The spark is produced as an electric current jumps (arcs) between the two electrodes of a spark plug; however, the voltage supplied by the battery is insufficient for this purpose. The voltage from the battery is first boosted by the coil to around 15 000 volts before passing to the distributor, in which a spinning rotor (driven by the camshaft) directs the current to each spark plug in turn.
The fuel system
For efficient and economical combustion within the engine, the precise proportions of petrol and air in the fuel mixture entering the cylinders must be carefully regulated. This is generally achieved by a carburetor. Although different types of carburetor exist, nearly all are in the form of a tube into which air is drawn by the downward movement of the pistons on their successive induction strokes. As the air accelerates through the narrowed middle section of the carburetor, its pressure falls, so causing a jet of fuel to be drawn through a nozzle from a reservoir, which is itself fed by a pump from the petrol tank. Within the carburetor, on the engine-side of the fuel jet, a circular flap (known as a butterfly valve) is actuated by the accelerator pedal in such a way as to control the volume of air-fuel mixture drawn into the engine, thus regulating engine speed. In most designs, a similar valve (the choke) on the air-intake side of the fuel jet regulates the amount of air entering the carburetor and thus the richness of the fuel mix.
Increasingly, direct fuel-injection is being used in place of the carburetor. This is more efficient and economical than the carburetor, since accurately metered and appropriate amounts of fuel can be delivered to each cylinder's combustion chamber. There are several systems - both mechanical and electrical - but the basic principle is that fuel is injected at high pressure into the combustion chamber from a point behind the inlet valve.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 2: How Cars Work (page 2)
ftsTitle
-01101
0-1--
0100)x0011
1]0110
9(0110
y0x(xxy1
-)-)1)
y)q)U))y1
y001(
00-0-
)q1)q1q
1)1)1)y)1)
1((00(TyL0
y))1)y)
11))q1q1))
q1q1q))1)1
(10x10
)1)q1q1)1)
y)1)1)1)y)
q-)q1)-q-y
-)1q1)
q)U))q)
1)y)q1q-)1
-)q)1q1)1)
1q1)y
010(0(
))y))
)q-)1)q1
1))1q)y1)y
q1q1))y)1
)q1)1q1
)q1y)1y)y)
1)y))1q1q)
y))1))y-)y
q1))q))1)
-))1)q)1
))1)1)y)1)
)y)1)y)1)1
1)1q1q)1q1
)1q)y)1)y)
1)y)y
)1q1q1)y
)y)y)y))1)
q1)1q)1)y)
q)q1)11)q)
)q)11)1q)1
)q1))-)qU-
8-0-0-
ppLpp
-)-1)1y)1)
q))1q
1)1Mq)q1)1
1))y)q1)1q
)1)y1q)1
0-(-x1x
$Lpxx
pplppl
y)y-q1q1q)
)1y)1q)1)1
)1)y-)1q
)1)y))y1))
1)q-)
101xy
llpplpLlp
)y)Uq1)
1q1q)
q1q)1q
)1)1)y)
-))q1q)1q1
0x910
(plpllplpL
)1))11q)
)q-)1))1)y
)1q))1
))y-))1)
1)1q)1
(x11-
-y))y
1)y)q1q)1)
y-q1)1q1q)
1)Uq1))
y))1)y))1)
)1)q1)-q
-10y0)0
pplpllx
)y)11)-q
)y-q)1)1)1
)y)y)1))y-
))-MM)1
y)1)1q))1q
1q))1q1))y
))1)q1q)y)
1)y)1)1
ppLpp
)1)-))q1
)1)1)1q)y)
q11)1
)1q1q
U))1y
1)y)1)q1))
1)1)1
q1))q1q
1(100
y)q1q1)1)
q1q)q1)1))
1-1q11)1q)
1)1)1q1))1
)q1q1)y))1
q1q1))y)1)
11)y)q))1q
11))1qy)
U00(0-
\)-01
0x10-
(0Zx(p
T(Lx(
1))1)q1
1)1)1
q-)y)1q1)1
)1q)y
q1q)1)1))1
)q)1))1q1)
-y)q1))1)y
q)y))1)y1
01010
y00-1
900)(
y1190)(
((1(p
ppqpl
)1)y1q-1
)1q)q1q))y
))1q1))y)y
)y))1))y)1
)1)y)y)1q)
1)y)y))1q1
)1q1q))1)
q1q1))y)1)
1)y)1))q
yx0-01100
y0y110
ppxpp
1q))1)1)1)
1))y))
y)1)1q1q1)
1q1q)1)-q1
)1q1))1
)1)y)1)Uq)
q1)1)1q1)1
q1q)-1)y)1
010(1
pqpplplL
q1)1q1q1
)1)q1)q)q1
q1)1)y)1)1
q)y))1)1q)
1))1q)y)-y
))1q1q)1q1
q)1)y))1-)
1q)y))1q)1
)1)y)q-)y)
p(x-(
)1)y)1)1
)q1q-q1)11
))1q)y))
q)U))y)q))
1q)y)1)1)q
-)y)U)1
1)1q))1)y)
y))1))y))1
q)q1))Uq1)
lp(-(
y)q-)-)1)1
q)q)y))1
)y-)1)y)1)
1)y)1)1)y)
q-1q1
y)y)y)y)1)
y)q-)1)y)y
)1)y)1)1)y
))1-q1q1
x11y101
xppy]q
)1)1q1))
1)y)y)y))1
)1))y))y)
q1y)1)q1q1
))y)q1))1q
)-)1q1)1)1
1q1)1-MUq)
)1))q1))q1
q1)1)q)1))
ypH(1
1)y)1)y)
1q1)1)1)y)
y)y1)1q1)y
1q)1))1q1
)q1q1))y
)1)q)y)y)y
y)q-)1)y)y
)1)y)1)-)q
)y-)y)y)
0qpp(p
01xyHlxy0
xpq(q0-
011Yy11
)q))1q-)
y))1)y)q)1
)1q1q))
)1q1)
1))1))1q1)
)Uq1q))1)1
q))1q)y)11
-q1))1)U
(11y-x1
x(llp
009xy
yyxLp
x0x01
-))y))
q)q)y)1))y
)q1)q1
q1q)y
y1)1))1y)q
)1)y)1)1)q
)y))q1q))
p1q1)q1q1
q11)q1)y))
1)1)1q)y-)
1)1)1q1
y)q1)1)1q1
))y)q1))1)
)1)1)y1)y
0x1p((-01x
xpl($HllL
81qxp
lpyxyy1
y00-01
xpqxq
))1)1)
)1)q11))1)
y)y)q1)1)
1q)1)q)y))
1)q)y))1q1
)-1)y)y))q
)y))-y)1)
qpM(lL
)y1q)y
q)1))q1))y
))1))y-1)q
q1)1M
))y1)
q)y)q1
)y1)1
xx1x1011
1xyxxyT
)q11)q
1q1))q)y
1y)U)M1)q
-q)q-)1))1
q1)1)y))1
)-)11
yx-x1
(1x00y0U8
xxy0x
0yxxpyx(
-Mq1)11)1
y-y))1q-)
U))1))1)
1q1q1))1U)
y)1)y))1-)
00pxx
q-)q)q)y
)y)1M1)
qy1q)
1)U))1)q1)
lppl0
-0911y
)y-)1)1)
y)q1)-
-q)1q1)1))
10y911
0xyxx
)1q)y)q
1)q1)q1-
q)1)1)q1
)1)y)q
0()pHll
$px)8
10x1--
-)1q)1))
1)1q1
1)q1)
-1pp0
11x0-
q))1)y-
(p)1qp
(p0xy
)1)q)
x((1p(
)1)1)
)1)-q
0p((1
0y((xp1pq
x0-xqU1
x(0q(
q-)y)1
M)1q1q1)
1pl(x
pp((x
p$0)x
M(x(q0q(yq
)1q1)
pp-y00
-1x11(
py(qx-0y01
q)y)q
01-01
\yxLp((
LxppH
0x(y(pl
0py0-
)-))q-)q))
)y)1)
19--0
ypplppT
Uxp((
plpq(-9x9y
q1q1)q11)y
(x0qp
)1q1q1)y
1))1q1q))y
xyx0p
M))1)y-)q1
)1q1))
q)y)U)
11)11
pyyxy
pH0px(p
)1q)y)-q)1
()p0p
1)y)1
y))q1)
y((x0y
)1-qq)1q)U
))q)1)q1
q1q1))1)-q
(()x(
))1))
y1q)y)1q)
))1)q)
)y)q)1)
11q))1q)y
Mp(xp
xy11(1
plH0x
))1)1
))q)1
011x-
11)y))1
)1)1)q1U
U)q)y)
p0ppTp
pMpllp
q))1q-
q1)y))1))q
1)1)1q
xp)p$$(yp
-T8--
yp(1y
1)M1)1)y)1
)y-y)
1)1))y
1)1q1
y))1)y-
(()00yT
Lyp0p
)q1q1)
)y)1-
1)-y)1)y)1
-)1)y)
1q1-(
pxyTxpxpyx
)U))q1
1)1q1q)y
))y)1)q1)
pp0xp(
lplxx
q(x(0
y))y)1)
))y)1
)1))1)1q)1
q))1)q)q1
xq($(()((x
pl(-((
x0xx0xx9
Tp1plpx
p(yL)
1)1)1q)
)1)1-q1
y)y))y))1
y)1)1))y)
1)-y)1)1))
yx1xy
pplxp
)y)y)1)y)
q1)1)1q1))
1q1)1q-
)1q1q1)1q)
y)1)y)y)1)
xxyplpl
00100x1(0
xyxTx
plpll
y)1)1)y)q1
))y)q-)q)U
1q-)1))y))
1))y)1)1)y
((HppyH
y10)00y
1x0010-
xxyTy
yqppl
llplpp
q(p)xq
p1p1p(
))q)y)1)1
)q1))-q1)1
)y)y1))y)y
))1)y)y-)y
)q1)1q)y)1
10101
y0(010yxx0
xTyxU
(HHLHp
px)xp(y
-L-x(p
q)1qy
-))q1q1-)y
)y))1q1
1)1)y)-
))y)1)1)q)
)1))q-1))q
(1(0((
xq0p1x
1q)1)1)y))
1q1q1)1)q1
q)1)y)1))y
)y)1)y)q1)
1q1y-q1q
00)0()0(0
0xx1p0py01
y(xq0
-pqp0
y)-qy-
1)1)1
)1)1q)1)y)
1)1)1q)1))
1q1)1-)y
(00(0(0
Zy1xx
1x0yx(x0x0
p(q(x
1)y1)
1q1-q1q)1)
)-q1))y)y)
)1q1q1-q)y
)1)y)y))1q
)q-))1q)1q
1q1)Uq
011((
10--10
Tx0xxT
0x0(0((
y\xyx
yTxxy1
0ypq(
1)-q1)1y)1
y)1)-)q11)
Uq)1)1)y))
1)1)q11
-0-0U0
x]xyxyxx
(x00py
(yx0)0(0L
((yxxyTx1
1xxU0
p0px0
q1qq1)1q1q
-)y))y-)q
-)-q1)y
q)y))1q)1)
1q)q-1)1q1
q1q)q
110U0
0x0x0xx
x010(p-0
((0(0
((0(1(x)
lH0x0xx
y0x0yx
xx)x()
q-11))y1))
1q)1-)y)q1
)1))q1)1U)
))1q1
yxx0xxyx
y010(
xyx((
((xxpxx0xx
0x0qx0x
y1)y)
y1)1)-1)1)
-)(-1q1qy
))yq1))1)q
)y)1)q1))1
)1))-
0xpx(x00y
(x0(0
(0p00x
lpp((x0(x
0p0p0p0xy
q)1)-1)1
)1qyy)y)1)
y))1q1q-y-
)q-q)
))1)q))y
T0Tx0
100x(00x
yH(Tx
0p0(x(p
$pp((x0(
(x(x)xxTTU
yz)q)1))
-)1)y)-1)y
1)1q))
)1)1q
1q1)11)-
1p()0(
Lp(0(Ly
yTxxp0p0py
y\xyx
T1q0x
)q1)1)
-)q)1-y-y)
)1-y)
q)1)1)q)
-)1)q)y
0(Lpp(x
y)qq-q1)1
q)11))1)M
1q1q1
)1)1q1q)1
y0-0(1
x0)L(
(100(
0-1xZ
plyxy
q)1q))1)
y)q)1))1q)
y00((
p(10p0
1)11q))1))
y)y)-)
y1)1)1q1q1
)1-1q-
x0x(y
T-Txy
yx1x(
1(p01
y)y)y))1)
1)y)y)
)y)1)1)q1q
0110(0
(1L((
1xx10(x(0(
xy((T00(
0L01p00(0(
1)1q)q1)1
0xyxx
-((0(L00)L
0((0(0(0(U
1y(p(-
x(p1p
-)1))y)q-
1q1q1)1
((0Up0
0(0(pp
1x(p1
x)x)xp011
-))1)y
-x1xqp1
q(0p(y
L-q(x0
(q-)1)y)y)
--x(x)
(x)x(0
q)y))1))
q(p1p(0
)y)q1)1
xp1px1(9
11H((
0p)xp)p0
p)xp)Y
qxpp(p
pq(pq
(1pq0
(y(pyx(
(p)(x(p
l($($p$($
0y(x(
yx(p1
0(0)08x
x1p(p
pp(()H((H
1)((p1
p(0p00
x10xxy
pp(H$(plp
-p(qx
x1(0(T(01T
0)(0yxx0x0
0p0yxx
(0(010(0(0
0L0(0
0px0x(00
1810(
1(xpp
--p1pp(q
0)xp0qx(
((Lpx0px0x
lpLlppl
-pM0qx(yp
)x(1py
()11-
px(p1p0
llpplpll
)1q11--V
p1py(p)
-q1)y)y
yp(0p
q1)1))y)-
L1p(p();
-))y)q1))
xp1xx)
)1q1)1)y
y(p)xp
)y)U))y)
x(pq0p1p
q1))y)-
q0y(xq
1)q)y)1)y
)p(p(yp0
-))1)1q)1
(xyp)x(y(
y))-)y)
-qp0x(qx$
)q1q1
0(0q(qxp
))1))1)y
pyp(x(y0(y
11-1-
y)q1q1))
p1x()xq
))1))1q
qxxqpT
1My)y)y)
1))1))M
()((p1
-()y)y)1-)
1)0ypx(
(p(y(y(
py(pp0qx
p(0qp0q
llpllLl
-11)q
(xq0p1-
pllpll
xq(q0(x)
plpllpllL
--(y)-
-p(px)xq
pllpl
(p)x)p
pllplp
0)xx(x
pllpllp
-xp)x)
($(lp
--p)xp
lLlpH
LL0q(xq
xq0pq0
-))q)1
1p(qp0q
pllpl
-q)1)11
qx(y((x
pllplpl
1)1q1q-
x)xp)x
-(lpllp
--L(y
lpllpll
1)U)1q-)1
-py(py
plpllp
11q)1
))1q)1)q
0p0py
y))11
)y))1q-
)1))y
-)1q1)1q
-px)x((
)q1))y)q
xq0py
(xq- G
)1))y)
1pL)p(y(0
1))1)1
(xq(;C
)y)q1
-0qx0q
1)q)1)
1-(p)0
-)1)y)
(p1pp)
))q)1)
q)-(1
0qxxy(
;:2;
q)11q)
1()(p0
1)y))1q1)
-pxp1p
q-)1))
1)q)-
xp)xp(
-)qy-q1)
q-)1)-
1-pq0p1
)1q1q1
(q0pq
0pp(B
))y)y
)1q))11-
1x(q(
:;::
1q)1)1q)
11-L)x)
1-q1q1
y))-1
-p0p(
)q1))
1q1q)1q1q1
0py(y
)-q1)
1)1))1)
-q(xp
(yp(:C
y1))y)
)y)q1q)11
1x(xq(
-)1)1)1q1
y)y)1)
)q1q)y)1
y(x((
)1))1)1)
(q0q(B
)y)1q)q-
-))y)11)1
py(y(
-)y))
01$0(
-1-1U
:--::;
-q)1qU))
xx1px(qx
p)xy(qx
)y))y
p(ppx
)y))1
py0q(:C
)1)y)q-q
Lx)xp0)
-))q1
(q0px-_
1-q11))y)y
p0qp-Y
0py(p)x
-)y)1)y)y
(0qx)x
())1q)1)1
-p1(p
0qx(x;
C G :
)(xqp(
--)y))1q)q
1ppqx
)x()1
((x)p0
-)1)y)1)1
px)x(
0qpp(
yp1px
q)1))y)
-q0p0q
p)x(:
0-1p0p0qx
0))1q)y))
T(p1p(
(p(q(yp(
)y)1)1)1
p)xxyp(yp0
p(yp(y
-)y)1)q1q)
-ypypp(
)p(yp0qx)x
-MMq)1)
pq0p0pq
pq0qx(y
x(qx(pxp
0pq0p
)p1x)
y9:;:1C
-p(px)0pp
1p()0q
xq0p1p0
pq(xq(xpyp
p(p1p1
)(xq(0(x
q(x1p((
11-1-11-1
0q0q0p(
qpxq((
))1y-
pp(x)p0q(
]11x1
-q1)--)
x)p1pp1p
-))q1)1)
-0pxp
)x(pypp
y)1)1q)
x1pyp
-)y)q1)1
1))y)1)q
-(1q1))q1)
y)1)1q
-)y1)1q))
21-C-
)1q)q
)y)1)-1q
1)11)y)1)
q1))q1q1
-)1)q
11)1))1)-
U))q)y)
1)y-))
1q1)q1yq)y
)1)q1)1
))1)1))1)
11q)1)
)q1q1)-z
q1))1)1))q
-y2y)q
11)1yZ1-
)q-1)y
)q1)1
-)1q1))y
)1)1y1
)y)1)y
)1)y-1-
11)q1q
-))q1)1q
)1)q1))1)q
)q)1)q11
)q-1)y)q)1
--11-
)-1y))1q
1)1q1))1Uq
r))-y))
1q1)-q1q)1
y1q)1
q1))q)1))1
9y(01
)y)1)y-1y
plpH$p
)1q1yq
1))-(
pplHH(
)-)1)y)
M)q)q)y)
y)y)q)q1q1
q1q1)
)q)y)
(-)-1)q1
q)y)1)y)
)-)U))1
1)1)1)1)1)
q))q1q1)1)
1)y)1)1q1q
y-)-)
1))q-
1q1q-1
l(Hppl
)1)1q1q1)1
q1)11q
1q1)q)y)y1
q1q1q)q)y)
-q)1)1
q1))y)q1)1
MUq1)-1
)1q1)-1)y
q1)1q1q
)1)-y)-
1)y)q)y
)1q)q))-1)
1))1)1)1q1
)y)q1)y)1)
q1))1)q1)-
))1q1q1q1
)1)-1
1))-q1))y-
)y)y)y
)1q1q1q1))
1q1)1)1)1)
)1)1q1q)q1
1q1q1q1q)y
)y)q)1)q1)
1))1)y)1)q
1q1)1)y)y
))y)q1
)1q1q1q)1)
y))q1)1)
1)1)y)1))y
)1q1q)y)y)
1)-1-))1)1
)1)1)1)1)1
)y)1)y)q1q
))1q1)1))y
)y)U)1q1q)
-y)1)1)q
1))q1)-
-)-1q1
1)11q))y1)
)y)q1
1q1q)q-)q1
q1)q)1)1)1
)1)q1q)q)1
q)y)q1q)y)
q1q-)-q1))
1)1)y)1)y)
q1))1)1q)1
))1)1))
y)y)1
--)q1q
)-1q-))1))
)1)1)y)
y)1))1)1q)
1))1)1q1q)
y)q)1)1-)-
qq1)q
1)q1))1)q1
q)1)1q1q1q
)y)M-1y)q-
11q1)1
1)y)1)y)1q
-z)y)y))1
)1q)y)y))1
q1q)y))q)-
1)y)q)1
-)1)1)
y)1)y)q
)U))1
)q)1)q)y)
-q1))q-1q)
y)y)1)1)1)
)y)y))1)q1
q1q)1q-)y1
q-y)y
q1q-1)
q)q))1q1)
1q1)Uq)1
))1y)q1
1q)y)q-
1yq1y
-))1q1)
q1)1q11-)
)1))1)q1)
1)-))
)1Uy))
1q)y))11
)y)y)1
1)q1)
)q))y)q1)1
1q1q)
1y))1))1y)
)Uq1))q
q)1q)y)
)1)q1
)q1y)
y)y)-
U))11))U)1
--))y))y))
))1q)1q
1)1)y-))q)
)q1))1
1)1))1))1)
)1)1)
y)q)y)1
M1q))
)y)q1)
1))1)q
q)1U)1
)1q-q-q1
1))11)-
q-q)y1)1))
q)y)y)
q)y)q
1y)1)
q1q)y-1
)1))q
1)1q))1)1)
)q1))q
qq1r)
U)y)1Mq11
q)yy1z
-y1q)y)q)
)1))1)M1)
)y))1)
)q1q1))1q
)1)y)y)y)1
)y))y)
1)1)q)1
y)y)q))1q
)1)q)q
y))1)1)1q)
)1q11q
)1q)q-)1y)
)y1)1q*y*q
y1))1q)1)
))q1y
))1q)y1)1
y)q)y)1)y)
-)1q)y)1
)1q)y)
)qy))q
1)1)q
1)y)q1
MM1))y)1)1
q1)1)1))y)
)q1)q1))
--$1q)q
-1)q1)
1q1q1
q1)1q
1)1q)1)1
1))1)y-
q1q1)
1)1)y)yy
)-)-)-
y)1))1)
y)1)y))-)
)y)y)1)1q
1q))1
)y))1
1)-)1))y)q
)-)q1q1q1q
1))y)1)-)1
)1q))-
q1q)--)-q
))y)1)q1
)1q1)1q1q1
))1)y
y)y))-
1)q1q
))q1q-)y
1)-q)y
)1)1)y)1U)
1)q1))q)y)
)1)1)y)1)y
q1q1)1)y
)q)1)q)1)
q))1)1)-
1q)1)y)y)1
)q)1)
y)U))
)1)q1q)
11)1q)q1))
q))q1q)y)y
)1)y)1-)1)
y)q)1)q1))
q1)1q1q-1-
q1)1q)1)Uq
))q1q
))1))
q)1U)-
)1q)y)
1)1)q)q)1)
1)y11)1)1)
1)1))q1))q
)q1q-))1q)
1)y)1)q1)1
)y)y)1)1q
))1q-
)1q1)y
)y))y)1))q
1)1))
))y)z)-
11)y)q-q1)
)y)q1)1)1q
1q-))q1)q1
q)y)y)1)y)
y)y)1
)y))1q)1)q
)q-))1)q)1
1)1)1)1q1q
-)q1q
)q-)1-))1q
1))1)y)y)1
))1q))1
1q)1)q1q1)
1))1q)1)y)
1)y)1)1))U
q1)1q)q
))q)y)
)-))-
11))q1q1
y)y))1))q1
q-11q1)y)y
)q1q1)1q-1
y)y))1q))1
q))1)y)y1)
)Uq1)1)1q1
)1)y1)
1))y)q1
q))1)1)1)
1)1)q1)1q)
y1q1M))y)1
)y)U)1q-))
y)y)1)1)y)
1)y-1)y))y
y)q1)11)y)
q)y)q
)1)1))q)1)
q-)1)q-)1q
1q)1)1q1))
U)q1q1)1q)
1q11))q1
)q1q1q1q)
)q1)11))q
1))1)q)qq
q1q)y))11q
)1q1q1))y-
q1))y1))U
1)1-))1)-
)y)q)1y-
)q)y1)
1)y-))1Uy)
1U)q)1)q1
1)1q11)
1)-)1
q1y-q))1q1
q))y))1
)1)y)y-1))
q))1-q
q)y-q)q
q)1)q)
q)1))y))1q
)y))1))1
))y))1q1q)
)1))q11))1
q)-)q)1
-)1q-q)M
)1q))1
))y))1
1)y))1q1)1
)y)1))1y-q
)U-)y1
)1)1q
q1)q(
1q1))1
))1)y))1q
))1)q-
)1)q)1-)1
q)q)1)y
y)y)q1q)1
y)q))1q-)
y)1)1)1q1q
1)1q)11)y)
y))1-
)1)-q1))y)
1)q-q1q1
1))1)
y)y)1)1)q1
))1q1))1)
1q1q)
q1q1)1q1
))y)1)
1)1)q)y)y)
y)1)1)
1q1y)
q1q1))1)q1
q)1)y-
))1)1
q)y)q1)1)1
)1)1q1)q
))1)q
1q)1))1q)-
q1q))1)1
1q)-q
1q)U)1q1)1
)1)q1q)y)q
))-)11)
)1q1)1
-q1)1
)1q)y)1)y)
)1-)q1q
)1)y)1)q1)
-))1))1)
y)y))y)-
-1q11)-q1
)1q)y)
1)1)q1)-q1
1)1)y)
-y)-))-))1
-)q)y)1)q1
q-)q)
1)1q1q)1))
y-)-1)1
q1q))q1)1)
)1)q1)1))
y)1))y)1
-)1q1q)1))
1)q-)q1q)-
)1)1q1)
11))1)q1)q
1q11)1))1)
)-)-qy)
qy1)y)
1)q1q)-y)1
y)1)y)
q)q1q)-)
)q)q-)-
)y)y)1)1)y
))q1q-
-)1)1-
)q1q1
)1))q1q1))
y)1)1))
)y)q)1qz
)11))Uq)y
)q)q1)-
-))1q-q
y)1))
U1)q1))1)
))q))y))U
))q1q-
11q))q1)-
y)Z)q)q1
)1q)y))y)
))1y1
)z1)-
))y-q1q1y-
))--)
1)q-))y)y1
)y))1)q
1-qq-
))1))
)1yq1
)1q)1)q1
()y)1))1))
1q1))1q
))1q)y
))1)(
(-()-
)y)q1q
-)z1y
p354-3
The Motorcar (3 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
Transmission
The term 'transmission' embraces all the components that are responsible for transferring the engine's power from the flywheel to the driven wheels. The spinning motion of the flywheel is transmitted to the gearbox via the clutch. When the clutch pedal is depressed, the spinning flywheel is disconnected from the shaft transmitting power to the gearbox, so allowing the car to move off gently and smooth gear-changes to be made.
A gearbox is necessary because - unlike (say) an electric motor - most internal-combustion engines develop their full power and torque (turning effort) within a relatively narrow band of engine speeds (usually between 3000 and 5000 revolutions per minute). By means of the gearbox (and partly by the differential; see below), the engine speed is kept within these limits while allowing the car to operate at widely varying speeds and in a wide range of driving conditions.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 2: How Cars Work (page 3)
ftsTitle
0100U
001x101x11
x)(1)0y1
]091x1(
8(1010
--11--
y]010
--(0y0x(x
yU09()
xy00(
x100-1
)00yx0
y]1((10(Tx
(01x00
x1yy\
x0y01(
010)0)
xx10y
-T100
0y1-1
ppLpp
-)010
$Lpxx
pplppl
llpplpLlp
9x11-
(plpllplpL
x11-001-
(x11-
-01x1(
0x0(x
qpplpllx
(x10-0
ppLpp
)0((T(1
01010
(0Zx(p
T(Lx(
0)(101
01001
y1190)(
((1(p
ppqpl
01011x10
y0y110
ppxpp
0x001
pqpplplL
lp(-(
x1y0y00
xppy]q
ypH(1
0x0-10-0
xqpp(p
01xyHlxy0
xpq(q0-
011Yy11
((pp(
yyxLp
x0x01
LlpHH(
-0y0p()
-01x0
$(Hllp
81qxp
yxyy1
xpqxq
qpM(lL
xx1x1011
1xyxxyT
1x00y0U8z
xxy0x0y
xxpyx(
01Z--0
00pxx
lppl-
-0911y
0xyxx
0((pHll
Hpx)8
10x1--
-1pp0
11x0-
(81)x
0p((1
1pL(0y00
11-0-
p$0)x
-1x11
01-01
\yxLp((
LxppH
0x(y(pl
19--0
ypplppT
Uxp((
plpq(-9x9y
xyx0p
pyyxy
pH0px(p
y((x0y
Mp(xp
xy11(1
plH0x
-x1-11--
p0ppTp
pMpllp
$(ypqL
-T8--
xppLp(y(
)00yT
)pxyTxpxpy
0pp0xp(
lplxx
xq($(()((x
pl(-((
x0xx0xx9
Tp1plpx
yx1xy
pplxp
xxyplpl
00100x1(0
xyxTx
plpll
y10)00y
1x0010-
xxyTy
yqppl
llplpp
10101
y0(010yxx0
xTyxU
(HHLHp
01T100
(1(0((
y\y01
00)0()0(0
0xx1p0py01
(00(0(0
Zy1xx
1x0yx(x0x0
011((
10--10
Tx0xxT
0x0(0((
y\xyx
yTxxy1
-0-0U0
x]xyxyxx
(x00py
(yx0)0(0L
((yxxyTx1
1xxU0
110U0
0x0x0xx
x010(p-0
((0(0
((0(1(x)
lH0x0xx
y0x0yx
yxx0xxyx
y010(
xyx((
((xxpxx0xx
0x0qx0x
0xpx(x00y
(x0(0
(0p00x
lpp((x0(x
0p0p0p0xy
T0Tx0
100x(00x
yH(Tx
0p0(x(p
$pp((x0(
(x(x)xxTTU
1p()0(
Lp(0(Ly
yTxxp0p0py
y\xyx
0(Lpp(x
y0-0(1
x0)L(
(100(
0-1xZ
plyxy
y00((
p(10p0
x0x(y
T-Txy
yx1x(
0110(0
(1L((
1xx10(x(0(
xy((T00(
0L01p00(0(
0xyxx
-((0(L00)L
0((0(0(0(U
((0Up0
0(0(pp
11H((
qxpp(p
pq(pq
(p)(x(p
l($($p$($
0(0)08x
x1p(p
pp(()H((H
p(0p00
x10xxy
pp(H$(plp
x1(0(T(01T
0)(0yxx0x0
0p0yxx
(0(010(0(0
0L0(0
0px0x(00
1810(
1(xpp
((Lpx0px0x
lpLlppl
)x(1py
llpplpll
)1V)U
-11-1
llpLl(
lplpl
Hplpllp
lpl(pllplp
Hpll(
ppll(
yx-qy
-)yq-
q1pyy
11q1q
1pyy-
plpL$
llpll
)(y1q)
-qy)y))
yqy)(
1q1yq
lplplH
y)p1y(
lpllp$
y)x1q
y)y-(
-y)y)
yq0q-1
lplpllp
1q1xq1q
lpll(
--11-
gC - :1
C :1-
C ;;--
;;:;;
;C;gC
C211(
C U;C
Y;CC2
1Y11Y11
Y11Y11Y11Y
11Y11Y11Y1
1Y11Y11Y11
Y11Y11Y11Y
11Y11Y11Y1
1Y11Y11Y11
Y11Y11Y11Y
11Y11Y11Y1
1Y11Y11Y11
Y11Y1Y11Y1
1Y11Y11Y11
Y11Y11Y11Y
11Y11Y11Y1
1Y11Y11Y
p354-4
The Motorcar (4 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
For example, a steep hill requires a low gear, because it is only at high engine speeds that the engine is able to deliver enough torque to keep the wheels turning. On the other hand, where little torque is required, as when traveling at speed on a level road, a high gear may be used, thus matching high road speed with (relatively) low engine speed. In this way engine life is prolonged, passenger comfort enhanced and fuel consumption kept to a minimum.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 2: How Cars Work (page 4)
ftsTitle
011-11
0100)x1011
1]1100
8(1011
x001(
01-0-
(00xx0
1((00(0y
(01x00
(10y1
x0y010
001(0)
x-010
1-(-x0x
$ppxx
100xy
plppLlp
10101-0-0U
(x110-
010y0
pplLllx
0y10-0
(1010
U00(0-
xx100
0y01-
(0Zx(p
T(Lx(
00)0-
x110-1
9xx)(
1190((
((1(p
qpqpll
10010x1y
y0y011
pLxppl
1xy-0x100
-1-(-0y
(xyll
1-]11
p(x0)
100y0
llp(-(
10T10
-T1x0-
ypH(1
10xx(lyx0x
xpq(p11
011Yy11
(1y001
((pp(
yyxLp
x0x01
::-x-
-00x1((0
xxpp$$
01qxq
yyx1x
11xUy
01xxpxq
qpL(lL
y0yx-
plLp(
)0x00x109
xyxpyx(
00pxx
lplpx
0-0911y
0TxyxxU
llLlp
-(8yy1-0
$qx)8Z1xx
(1$x00
11x0-
llppx
x(llp
-180-01(
ypp(0y10
11-0-
y91x1-
p$0)x
\xyLp((
LxqpH
0y(x)pl
(qx]y-
xpplppT
Uxp((
plpq(-9x9y
xyx0(
p0(ppxq
lyyxyppx
pH0px(p
y(0xx1
0-010
plH0x
ppllp
010(1
y(1x(
(0q(($(
xyy]y80
0y100
p(pp(
()p$$(y
001--
p(Lq(
-T8--
y110y
(q(py
pxpyxTyx
lplxy
p0plx
xq($(()((y
l(-((
0y]0x
01xxyT
xT)plpx
)0(0-0
0yxx1xx
pplxp
xxyplpl
00-(0
xx1xx
plpll
((HppyH
y10(01x
0y0010-
TyxyTxyxx
yqlplp
xyppH
y0(1T01xx1
xxTxyxxT
(HHLHp
001(T(
0(1((
xy\01
yyxx0xy
T1(0)
0yx0(x(x01
y\xxy\
xxyxTx
xUxyx1
x0xx)
1-11-
0101010
yx]xxy
0xxyx0x0
yTxxy0
1x0y1
0x(0py
yx1(0(0(
xyxxTx0xxy
0yxT0
yTyxx0xx
0(p-(x00
0(1p10
l(0x0
yx0x0xy
xxy0xx
0x(yy
((xx(
$(xxpxx0px
0p0yx1x
x(x0xxy
0x00xx
((0p0
x0p0(0(
00xxy(
p(p0(0p0x(
x(p(xx
0x0(x0(
xx(10x
Txx0p0(
q((x0(0p0p
yL0p(p0p
pL(0(L1
yxTxp0p0
(xp0qx]xy
y00(xx(p
qxy\xyx
11--1
Ty91y
00yx1x(
x0p(0x
yx00(0(T(
xT((T00(0
L01p00(0(
-((0(L00
0((0(0(0(U
0(0(pp
xy0x0
11H((
p)(Hp
(p((pUp(
q(pq($
l($($p$($
(p((0(
pp(()H((H
y00qx
pp(H$(p
lppL(
((00(
0L0)00U0(0
Tyxx0x0(0(
x0x1x(
(0(00(0(0
0xx0((
1810)0)
(0((0(
((ppx
0p(xx
lpLlppl
((0)x1
llpplpll
lpllp
llplp
)y-)1q
1-q1q
1q1)11)
))q1q))
)-q1))
))1)y))1-
)q1)1q
)1)y)1)
))-q1
11--1
1y0)0)0
:p0q0
1))1q11
)1y)1)y)
1)q1z)
1q)1)y1z
q*z)q2y))
1q))y
)-y))1
1)y))
q1))-
)q)q-
1))11
)1q-q)
y)y)1))
))1q1
q1)M)1
y)1))q
1ry-)(
()1q1)
z-)1)y)1
)q)y))1q
)1))y)1
q1q1))q1
)1)y)1)
))1)1q1)
y)q)1)y
)1)1q
q1q1)1q1
y)1)-
MUq1))1q
-))1)y))
q1q-11q
{-)q-
M1))q))y
)q-1)1q
)y-y)q1)
q))y1
-1)-(1
)q1q1)
)y))y
q)1)1))1
r)1)-
)y))q1q-
1q-yq
y)1)q
z)1)z
-)1)1)1q
))1q11
)y)q)y)
1)y)1)q)1q
)z-)1q
q1)1)1))
y))1q-)1
)1)q1q1q
1q)zq
)My1)1
-)q)1
-1)y1
1))q)1
)q-z))y1y)
)q)-q1y
11)1)
q)1q)y-))1
q)--y-11q)
y(20qpqT
)y)1)q)
yzzyq-))
q))1))y-)1
q1y)q)1)
y))q1
q1)-))11)
1y)q)1q1
*q1q-q)
))1-1))1)y
x)p0p
z)1))1
)q1q)y)q1)
11q)z
y(p0qy-
y-))y)
y)1))
)y)1)-x
y)y))Uq)-
x)pxp
)1))1)-
)y)y1
1))Uq1)qY(
q1q1q1q1)M
y1pyp-xp0p
-)y)1)1)
1)1))1)yp(
y1q(q
1z)1q1q)
)q)y1px(py
1y(p1pM1
1pp1p
)p1py
1(1q0p)xyx
0p1pq(x
1qp0qp
0q0pq0q0p1
pqp0py(qp
y(y1p0qp
0q(x)x(0p1
p0p0qx(pT-
pyp0py(p
0q(xq0p)
p)xp1pq(q-
p0qx(p)p(0
x(q(p(p
yqpy(--
xq(yx(0
qpyp(
(q(px
1(qp0
pypp)(
((xq(
1((xxp
qy0yy
yyp0(L0q
pqy-((
)$)x1
p0p)(TM(
)x(p(q
(xq(pMxpy
0pypypxq
)y)y-
)q)q1)y-
)1))y))y
q)y)q
))y))q
yq)M(
))1)11)y
p354-5
The Motorcar (5 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
After passing through the gearbox-and-clutch assembly, the drive is transferred to the differential. In front-wheel-drive cars, transmission from gearbox to differential is direct; in rear-wheel-drive cars, if the engine is mounted at the front of the car, the differential is driven by a crown wheel and pinion at the end of a propeller shaft.
The rotation rate of the shaft from the gearbox is further stepped down by the differential (normally to about a quarter of the gearbox speed). However, the differential's distinctive function is to allow power to be divided between the driven wheels in whatever proportion is required. Such a mechanism is necessary when cornering, because the outside driven wheel needs to be turned more rapidly than the inside wheel.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 2: How Cars Work (page 5)
ftsTitle
1-0x10
10(1(q8q9y
18y-0
9(101
x9x9((
yT10(
x0yx10
1((00(0
0TU9y01y
101pp
010xx
xx0x)
y01Tyx
y--00
ppLpp
$ppxy
pplppl
100xy
llpplpLlp
10-01
(plpllplpL
1Y09-
(x01--
(1x0)x
qpplp
ppLpp
(0)0T10
1(01T101
x0T10
(0Zx(p
T(Lx(
0-0(L1
x101-U
((1(p
ppqpl
01y0)01
y0y110
ppxpp
0y0x1
-1-(-0y
y001y
pqpplplL
p(x0)
00y0)
lp(-(
x0y0x0-
xyppy
0-00)0
xy-y]
lp(1(
xx001
0x0-01-0
01xyHlxy0
xpq(q0-
(11Y-x1
yyxLp
1191x
LlpHH(
1p((-01x0
p($Hll(
81qxp
lpyxyy1
y00-01
xpqxq
ppLp(1
qpM(lL
01(0xx1x1
1xy1(
1x00y0U8z
xxy0x0y
xxpyT(
01Z--0
00pxx
0-0911y
0xyxx
01((pHll
y1x1-0
y8yx9
10x1--
-1pp0
11x0-
UY9xqx
(81)x
x1x01
(pHpp
01y()
0pp(0y10
p$0)x
-1x11
01-01
\yxLp((
LxpLH
-0x)x(pl
19--0
ypplppx
yxp((
((U9x9y
Tyx0p
pplppx
LyyUxpLy
(px(p
y((x0x
Mp(xp
x10)0)
x-11--
xyy]yy0
p0ppTp
pMpllp
()p$$(
11--(p
)00yT
p)pxyTxpxp
yxxyT
plplp
pp0xp(
xq($(()((x
pl(-((
x0xx0xx9
yx1xy
pplxp
xxyplpl
00100x1(0
plpll
((HppyH
y10)00y
1x0010-
yxyTy
Uqlpl
llplpp
10101
y0(010yxx0
Tx0xx
(HHpH
(1(0((
yx1xxy
00)0()0(0
0xxTx0xx
(xx018
(00(0(0
Zy1xx
xUxyxyx0
xx0x1-
011((
10--10
Tx0xxT
1xyx0
-0-0U0
x]xyxyxx
0x00py
xyx)00(
((xyxxyxTx
1xyxyx1
110U0
0x0x0xx
T0T0(p--xx
1(00(0
l$0xx0x
pxy0xp01xT
yxx0xxyx
y010(
xx0L((
0(L((xx(
p(Hxxpxx0
0xpx(x00y
T((yx(
0x()0
((0(0xxy(
H(x(0x(x
x((x0
y1))z
q1-))-
T0Tx0
100x(00x
pp((0p(00p
0pxy0xx1
1p()0p
pL(0(Lx
p0xx(x
pp((xpU0y
-1)q-))
0(Lpp(x
(1-(0
y00((
plyxp
x0x(x
01(00
xx1x1
0110(0
yx01(T(0(
xx((0T0(0
L00x1(0(T(
((1p1px
0xyxx
-(0((L00
(0(0(1((00
(0q0p1pp1p
y))y)--
p0((0
0T((pp
0pp1p(x
1)1)1-
y))1q-
plpLp
0q(x(0q
(p1(y-
1q)yq--
)-y)1
)0((0
y(lpllp
q0pp0q(
1))1-)-
p0pq0q
q11q)
(x(--
)1))1
y)q1q)-1
)1q1)
11H((
))1-1
pp((qxy(
pq(pq($
l($($p(H(
0((11
p(()H((
p(0p00
x10xx
pp(H$$(p
x1(0(T(01T
0)(0yxx0x0
y(Tyx
(0(010(0(0
0L0(0((L(
00(0x0xx
xx9001
pllpllplpp
0p(xp0
lpllpplpl
pllppllp
plppl
$Hllpp
--1--11
121--
p)0pp1
x)(p0)0
xq0(y
x)p1(
p0pxq
1(p(x)
)xp1()
(py(yp(
(yp0qpy((q
xp)p(0
y(x()x
xp1p0(
(p)pp0q
(p(qp1
q0)ppx
)(xq0qp0(p
qx)x(y
(0px)x)0
(x)x(p1(p)
x(xqx$
(qx)pxp
0y(px1py)x
(qp0q(
p1p0pq()y
y(qp1p0
y(1p0)(y(y
1p0pqx(x
((yp0p)xp)
pp0pqx(
((y(q0(xy
p1p(x)xp)0
pypyp()
(xx)(
yp0px)pq
p(xq0qpx)x
p1p0((y(()
(yp)x)
p(qp1p1x
(1p(xpy(pp
)p0qxq0q(0
yp((x(
p1p0p(xp)
p0q(q0xq0p
0q0p0ppqx(
p1pyp)
p)xp0)p0qx
q(p0qx)x(q
x1p01
)xpq(
0qx)p0p)xp
1-11-
(1p1-
x)pxq(0)p0
1p(x)
1)M))-)-))
-)y)y)M)-)
-)y)y)1)1
))y)1)y))1
)1)1q1)y)-
(y0p(
1q1q)y)-q)
1)y)q)y))1
q-)y)q1)1)
)y)q1q
1))y)y
11)1q)1q))
1)1)1q))1q
)1q1))1)1)
y1)1))y)q)
y)-y)1)y)y
)q)1)y)1)q
1)1q1)11
)1q-11q1)y
q1q1)1)1)q
1))q1
1)1q1)1q)1
1)q1)q1))y
)q1)-
)yq)-q)q)
y)1))1q1q1
q-)y)1)y)y
)y))1q))y)
q11q)1)q1)
)1)q)y-
)q11))1))
1q1)1q)y))
1q1))y)
1q)11q-))1
))1q1)1q1q
1)1))y)
q))1q)y
)q1)1)1q
)q1)1Uq1))
y)y)y))1q)
1)U)q-y)1)
-q)y))M
1)q-q)1))1
)y))1)q-))
1))y-))y))
q-1))1q1)
q11)q1y
)y)y-q-1))
1)y1)q))1q
1)1)y)q1)q
y)y1q11))1
q1))1))1q)
U)y))
()q-))y
1)Uq)1)q
))1)q
)q)1)--1)
q11q)
1-q)y
q1y)q-)1))
1)1q-
1))1)1yz
q)1))-
1)q1y)r1y)
11q1))y)y
)1q)q11
)y)y)q1)z-
1)1q1()y)y
1q1))-y
)y)1))1)
)q)1))q
))1q1)
-)1))y-q
1)1q)y1-
))1)1)
)q1)y)1)
1)y))1)
)-)1q
()1q)
)1)y))y)
)y))Uq-q
1)q1)1)1
)y))q1)
)q)1)q))
-q))1
)1)q)
1)1y)1-1)
1q1q)1)
y)q1q
1)1q1q
Uq1))1)
-q)q1)--
)y)y)1q1)y
-)1)q)y)q
)y1q1q1
1q-)1M1y
)-y1)1q)y
1q))1
-yq))
)-))-))y
)1))q)y
)1q1q1q1
z)1)11)-
-q))1))
)1)-q)y
q)-y)1)
y)1q)1)
)q1))
-))1q1y)q)
1q1)-q)
)1q1)1)y
1)q)1))y
1)11q-)-
1)q11)
y)-q1q)
U)1q)-
y)1)q1q
-)1)y))y
)1)1)
yq-))1)y
))1)-
1q1)1)
)1q1))-
1)y)y
y)y)-
1q1q1)
))1))1
y)1)1q1)
r)1)1q
1)y)1)
)1q1q
1)y)1)q)
1-)y))
1q1))y)
q1)1)
q))y)1)
)1)q1))
-1))y)
1)1)1q1q
)-q1q2
)1q1)1
y)q1))
)q))1)
1-1))-z
y)-q)113
))1)y))
q)1)q1
)1)1)y)q
)-)q1)
)q1)-
y1q))1)
)1)1q))
q1q1))1)
)1q)y)1
))1q1q1
q1q)y):
)q)y)-q)
))1q)1)
y)y)y))
q)-)1q1)
)1q1))1)y
1)1q)1q1
y)11))-
)11)-q)
1q)1)y))
1)q)q1q
11q)y))1)
)-1)-)1
y)1)1)
1)1)1)1q)1
-)y)y
)q)1)1
0q))qy))
1)y))
11U)y)
-))1)q1
1q)1q1q
y)y1q)y)
1))1)
-1)1-
))y)q
)y)q1q1q
)y)y)q
q)y)y)q1q1
q1q1)q
))1)1)
1)1)1)1))1
)1)1)1)1)1
)1)1)1))1)
1q)y)q1q)y
)qy)y)q1q)
y)q1q)y)q)
q1qq)1)y))
(zy)q
q11qy
))y)y)y)
)yq2q)
)y)1yM
q1qU)11q-
-(zq))1q-
1-)y)
q1q1)y)y
1)1)z
-1)1)
(yp(yy
((q0pqx
1)1)1
q1qy)q-q)
-)1)y
yy-U(
)1)1)
)y))1
0qxy(1
1q1q1
1)y))
1)y))
1)q1)
)1q)1))z
1)1))1)U
q1q1)1
q1)qy1)y)
-))q1-
)q1)q
))y))y)
))1)y)y)1)
q1)y)q)1))
)1)q1
q)y)1)
1)q1)1q
y)q1q1))1)
q)-y)1
1)y)y)q
1q-)1)1)1q
1)q1)y
q1)q1q1)1)
1)1q1q)1)y
)1q1)y)q1q
1q1)1)1)1-
y)1)q)y)y)
)1q1$
1)q-)1)
1)1)y)q)y)
)1)1q1))1
1)1)1)1)q)
q1q)y)-q1)
1))1)1q1)
1))q1)1
q))1)1))y)
q1))y)y)y1
q)y)q1q)1)
y))y)1y)q)
-)q)1)
y)y)q1))1)
1))1))1q1q
)q1q1)q1)q
)1)y1q-)y1
1q1q1q1q1q
1q1)1-1)1)
q)1))-)-
1)1)1
1))1q)q)y)
q1)q1
q)y)1
p356-1
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 1)
ftsTitle
A French crossbow of the early 16th century.
Weaponry (1 of 7)
Throughout recorded history, man has searched for ways to gain advantage over his opponents on the field of battle. As new weapons have been developed, countermeasures have been sought, so invariably initiating further change. The result is a pendulum, swinging between opponents in terms of advantage and accelerating as technological expertise has grown.
Until the 14th century, technology played a limited role in warfare. Before then, weapons were little more than hunting tools - spears, axes, sling-shots and swords - put to a different use. Technology was confined to weapons that depended on tension to project missiles over distance. An early example was the Roman ballista, a catapult that used ropes to pull back a wooden pivot, the release of which threw large rocks against enemy defenses. The same principle was used by the longbow and the more mechanical crossbow, both dependent on human muscle to tauten a string, which projected an arrow when released.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
yTUPU
TU,UTP1x1x
-x1x1yUx1
xP]y0yT
yTyyTyTyUx
yUxUxy
UyyTyUx]xU
yy\yU
0yTy0y
00y0UP1tTU
Tx1xUxy
t0yxyTUy
TUTyxyTyxU
x1xyxUy
xy\y]x
UT1ty10y1T
1QUPUx1xUx
xyTyyxU1y1
xUUTyyTyUx
1yyUxyxUx]
yx]yyT
1yTyUT0xx-
TTQTTQUx1y
UxyTyUxUyx
yTyyT
yxUxUT
UyxUyU
yTxx-
x0u1t1x-UT
y0yTyxy0y
TyUxyx
1yxUxUyTyy
y0yUyyxU
xyTyy]yTy]
]yUy]
1xy0y
1yyTUUx1TP
U,x1tUxUy
,xUx1
xUyxUyUx1y
yTyTyyUx
yUUTy
Uxy]yU
Uy}]x
-xUQTUUx1x
tTyyTyxUy0
yxyTyTyyTy
TUUyUxyUyU
xUy]x
UyTxyx1x1x
1y,UT1y0y0
PLyyTyxUyx
yUyTyTyyTy
yxUxyxUyy
yTyyTyUx
UyxUy
yxyUT
Ty1xUy0y0y
t0uTyTyxUy
$,xTy
Ux1xUxUxyU
yy0yxUxUyy
TyUxUxyU
Uxy]yTyxU
TTUxt1xUTU
UTUy,yyxUy
yxUyxyUyyU
yxUTyUxUyx
UyTyyx
UxyUxy
yUTUy
TyUT1U1U-x
1yTxUTUxUy
UyTyU
1yyxUxy0yU
TyTyUyUxyU
0yyTyxxUx0
yx0UUTUy0U
Uy0yUxyTyy
UxUxUxUUxU
xyUyxyT
yxUy]
yTyy0yTyTx
yTTUUPTyxU
QPyxy0yxUy
xUyxy1xUyT
yyxUyTyTyy
xyTyU
UxUyxU
TyTyy0yy0u
0y0yUxUxyT
UyxUyx1y
xUyTyyTy1x
UyxyUxyTyx
UxyTy]
]xyTy
UxUTyUTUyy
Ty1xUyxUyT
UxxUxyTyTy
yTyyTyyx
0yUxyUyyUx
UxyTyUx
yxyUyTy]y
yxUyxy
TyTyxUx0xT
x0y1xUy0yT
yUxyU
Ux1x1x1xUx
yxUxyTyxUx
TyUxUyxUxy
Tyy0yyxxUx
(tUxyUxU
yyTyUx
y0yUyxUyxU
Uy\yTy
UyxyT
yxyxUyUxyU
TyUTUx1xUx
TyyUxyy1xU
TUxy1xy1Uy
x1x1xUyxyU
xyTyTyyTy\
x1TyUxxUyT
xUPUTU0yyT
UtUxUyxy
UxUxUyUxyx
UyTyxyTyUx
y\yUxy
yxUxyUyxyU
xxUtyxyTyy
(P$,$
yxUUTyUx
y1yx1xyTyU
xyUyTUUxyT
yUx]y
xUxUxyTyTx
UTyTUTyTyU
P,L,L
,xUxUyxUU
TyTyxUxyUT
UxyTyxyTyx
UyUy]
yyTyU
xUyTUyxyUx
yUytTyTUxy
tpyyTyTyx
1yxUxy1xUy
x1y0yUyTUy
xy]y]
UxyyxUx
TyUx0y1TUx
UxUxx
$,P(P(
Lt]yTyy
xUyTyUUTyT
yTUyTyUxyT
yxyUxTyUyy
xxUyxTy-x1
yTy]-
PtyTyyTyT
yx1xUUTxyT
yTyyxyTyUx
UxyTyUxUxU
xxTyTyxUxy
xTyxUU
xTxUxU
TUyx1yxyTy
yTyxUUxUy]
UxyTyUxy]x
yyTyUxUUTU
TPyyTQx
xUyxUyTyTy
yTyTyUxUyU
UxyTy
xyxUxyUxUy
xTxTx,yTUT
$,P(,
yxyTy0Uxyy
TyUxyU
yyUxUyxUyU
yxUTUUTyTy
yTyUyT
$x1PUyx
UxUTUUxyxU
yTyyxUxUxU
UxyTxUy
xyxUyTyxyU
xyTy0yTyU
Tu0yxUyTyU
0y0yTy]yxy
yyxUy
]xyTxy
yTyyTyTyTy
xUy0yTUxyU
P,(,t(P,
yTyyT
yxy1xyyUTU
UxUxyT
yxUyyTxUy
TyxyUyxUyT
yUx1UPxyyT
xyTxyTyT
y0yTxyyxUy
xUyxT
yTyxyTyUxx
UxyTtxUxTx
Qy0uxTU
xyUyxUxyUy
TyTyyTyy\y
yx1xyyTyUT
UxuTyUxxyU
xxUTUxUxUy
(P(,$
UUyUyxxUy
yUx]yT
UyyTyy
xUx0yTxUxy
TyxyPx1xt1
x1t1yTyTy
tyxyUxUxyT
yTyxy
UxUxyxyUxU
yTyxUxUTQx
xy0yTUy-
TyUxy]yT
TyTyxU
xUUTyxuUxU
xTxy0yxUxy
TPyx1PxyTy
,P(Q,
PUyTyyUxUx
yyTyTyUyyU
xyTyTyyTyy
TyyTx1xUyT
y0UxTy,
,1,-PM,
yUxUy
TyxUx
yyUyx
yyTx0uxTyx
0yxTyTy0yT
QTyxUtTyTy
1t-L-
xyy]xyT
UxU0yTyy0y
TxUxUxy1xy
TyTTUPUTUx
yU1P(
yUxyTyUyx
UxUyU
y0yyt
1xyTxUxyTy
,yTtxUtxUy
,yTyuTyT
,yxyU
UxyUxy
UxUTyTyTQT
yyPTUxxUxU
yTy1xUQTyT
1P,L,L,P(
pUxUyTyUx
yUyUy
yTyx1y1xTy
xyUxxyUTxU
x0yxy0xyxy
(P-LU
yUxy\yT
yTy1xuT
yxTxyTxUtU
yPxyUxytUx
UxyTyUy]
$,PLU,
y]yUyU
TTUTyUxyT
yyTyy0yxTx
yUxUyTy1yx
P(lTP,L
UUtxQx1x1
yTxUxyxUxy
0tyTUUTyTU
tyyTy
P(,P(P(,
UyUxU
1xTUUT
yPxxTxxTyT
yxUyTxUxtU
xyxyUxUxU
Pt)P,
yTyTx1xxUy
xxUxUxyTyx
UyxUx1xUyT
p,LTQ(
xUyTyx
TUTUPx
yTUTyUyuxy
UxTyxyUxUy
xyTyTyyT}
LyTyy
y,yxyxTyT
xyxTxUxUxy
TyTxyxTyUx
P,pPP
(tP),,M,
yTyUy\yy
xUPUxUtyUx
UyyxTyxUxy
yTyUxyxUxU
UPU,lU1L,P
x1TTx1x
yTyxyTxUxy
TyyUxTyxUx
UyyxUx
tUyUy
UUTuxUxTUP
yQxUUyUxUx
yTyyTyyxUx
UyyTyy
xUxyxTyTxx
UxyTyxUxxy
TyyTyTyxTx
t1PPL,)t
x1x,xUxUx
yxyTyTxyyU
xUyUxUxyTy
y,L,P
UUxxUyTyUy
xUyTxyxUxy
TxyxUxy
$,LTQ(
t,LP-,L$
xyUxyTyTxT
yTyxTyxyTy
TyxUx
yUxyTyT
yxUyyxUyTy
TyTyyTyUxx
Tyy\yy
L-,P(
t,pUP(P(
1xyTyxyT
xyxTyUxyTy
L,t(,
yxUxUtTyUx
Ux1xyUxyUy
TyxTyTyyUx
yxyTyyT
yUxUxy
y]UHP
Ut,(t(t,
UyTyTxy
TyxUxy
,H,L,p,t(P
xUyTyxyxUy
xUyxUyTyUx
UxUyx
P$TUH,LPP(
yTyxyxUyU
UxyxUx
xyTyy\yy
UxyTyTyTxy
,L,t(,,LP
xyTyT
yxTyU
,L,PLP
yTyUyyx
,L,t,p
yyUxUyUyTy
UxUxy
p,(tQ(
yyTyxU
xxyTyxTyT
\y]xx
yTyyUxUyT
]xyTy
yTyUx
yy]yy
p1P,-
t(t,p
yUxxU
yyTxTy
UxUxyx
Tyxy]
UxxTxyxU
yTyTy
UyTyTyTyyT
(PP,L
xyTyxy
TyTyyT
P,L,P
UxyTx
xUyxyy
xTPPQ
PPp,P
UxxyUxyT
UxyUxU
0,L,t(,x
xTxUx
xUxUxy
xTyTy
yTyxUxy
LPP(,
xUxUxy
TyyTy
(P,Lx
xyTyxTyT
xUxUxxU
yxUyTy
1HPP(-,
(PLP,p
T-tx,p
T,P(t,LP
tL1Q(
yUxyx
t(tUY
,L,L,P(
V$P(t1PL,P
,t,Lt
(PPp,PH
P)PL0P
,p,PPL,x
-,p,tp,pPL
LPPlTt
tLtPMt
H,p1,p,Pt
PLt,p,,
Ty]xUx
pPPLP
PpPtp,
xPPLt,
UPLtyH
y,PT
UPHtt,L
U,LUx
PPlTt
yPpUQ
LTPxtt
PxPt,p
1QPp-PpP
-LPLPP
tTtPp
-(t1tPL
xPP,qt
UHt(P
PLtPU
tH,p1t
ptH,T
yPx,p
^PxTt
TP(tTP
^Ppx,
1pUP1QL
2ttpx-
MPLPT
:txPx,
yPpUPP
QPtTQ(
]ytLPPpU
tpx-t
yPptTt
tTtTp
Uy1tPpP(
^LtpPUP
UPPpTx,t
9tLPP
-tTt0t
1ttpTt,u
xPPLUI
1PpPxPty
:pTtTP
t,tTLP
,xPLPy
PPpx,t
]pttpPP
^-tTt,(
]y0PPp,
,pTPp1
tp,t(t
1t,Lx,t
ytPL,PL,Lt
,t(ttL,t
tPLP,P
1PPL,
PLxt0t
ttLt,
Ptp,P
-t(PL
tLPPx
tLTPP
t(txPP,q
TP(PP
,txPp
9PPy,p
:MPxPT
,PTt(xUP(
UttPLt
x,t,p
1,pPx
Pq,pU
T,PLP
y,L,t0,
tLPLP
,(P,L
LPt(P,L,LP
U-$,(P
1,pPtTP
1,tPxPx
1Q,LP
.(P,p,LP
TPtp0tP(
(P,P(
P,p,t
UPPpxPt,L
1),(P,P(
P,L,,
,p,t(x
yTxQy0P
LtPLT,p
1P(,(P,(
L,P,,($
yH,,LPP(P
y0PLTPtx
P(,P,
P,P(,L,P
]P,L,(
,,p,T,tLtt
Lx,tPt
-L,(t0,)
,,(P,
P(,P,L,
PLtLxtPLt,
P,PPT,P(
,L,L,p
tPpPt,LP
Pp,t(P,L,
P(P,P
),(P,L,L,,
,L,PL
,LPtPptPp
tLxt(,
)-pPPt(,
P--P(,
,(P(P,(t,t
,L0tQ(x0P0
ptTt,
),LPPLtt(
,L0P0P,P(P
,(P,(,L,P(
Ttt(PLPp
PtPpPxPt,
LPx,t(PPL0
,t(P(P,L,,
L,P,(PPt(P
tLPPptPpTP
T,LPTPpPp,
tLtPL,PpPt
tpPxPxtxP
yUy,LPtp
PtpTtLttPt
LtPtp
]qP,(
tt(tLttxLt
PxxPpP
yTtMtPpPtP
^,Ttl
Lx,ty
PpQ,l
UxtPptt
PpPPtLP,(P
TtUQLP
]1PPptPp
,(PqP
pt(tpx,P(
U,t,p,(tU
1u1,)
LPt-L
Qx)x,P
(,,(-,
p356-2
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 2)
ftsTitle
A set of imperial flintlock pistols (1732)
Weaponry (2 of 7)
Early firearms
The real breakthrough came with the use of gunpowder to provide projectile power. Invented by the Chinese, gunpowder is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur and charcoal, which - when ignited in an enclosed space - explodes. A weapon was produced when this explosion took place in a tube closed at one end, with a projectile, such as a ball or a bullet, introduced at the other end. The result was the gun, examples of which were in use in European armies by the 1320s.
Although early guns were not very accurate, improvements came steadily, and by the late 17th century the flintlock had appeared. A soldier armed with a flintlock musket would bite the end off a paper cartridge, empty a small amount of powder into the pan above the trigger, tip the remainder down the barrel, add a ball and the cartridge case as wadding, ram it tight and cock the weapon. When he pulled the trigger, a piece of flint struck a 'steel' that covered the pan to produce sparks, which ignited the main charge and sent the ball out of the barrel at speed. Cannon worked on the same principle, except that a match needed to be applied to the touch-hole to produce the explosion.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
tltPptLllP
lPltltl
tpltpl
tplPpltLlt
tllPltL
lltll
Plltltpltl
pltlltl
tptlltlPll
Pltpll
ptPtL
ltPltpPtpl
lltll
tltltltL
PltllPpPtp
PlPpP
tltLtPlttL
,pPpt
tpltll
ltLllt
PlltLtltlP
xtLtP
tltpPpttlP
ptPL,
xPtLmQlQ
LtlltPpPll
t(tltp
ltlltl
ltLltlP
pPpPtPpPt
PpPll
tlltlt
lPptPltltl
xPL,t
\T,L,
PplPp
llxPPLtPqP
TyPP(P
lltpltt
PpPLPp
TP(P,p
lltpltltl
PltLtpPlt,
HP(,HtT
tltll
tlltLltLlt
tlPlt,
,L,PPpP
,P(tlt
tllPlltLlP
,,P(l
ltltl
ltltlt
ltLlt
lPlltltltl
txPt(,P,p
UttxP
$P(P(
tpltl
lPlttL
tlP,L
,LPx0P(P(,
UxTx,
(,L,Pltl
tltlPp
$P$,pP
xtTTP
tltltl
tLltlt
(t,PPTPPLT
L,$,P
Llltll
LltLP
$$,pTy,
xtPTP
lltlt
LltLtl
Pllt(
txTtxx
tlPlt(P
xTyt1$,
ttltpltllt
LltlltLtPp
lttLP$,
TP(P,L,,
tlltPpP
,P(Pll
plPpltltP
pllt(,
TuPPqQ
ltLlttlPl
U$,L,$PH
pPllPpPtLt
PlPltLt
L$txTx
,(P,,
tltpPl
ltltLt(
,P(,L$
pPlltlPp
tltlPpltP(
,$,$,(
1P,L,P,,
PtLtLtll
tLtlltlPpP
tltltL
L,,L,LHP
tltLtLtllt
tpl,P$
tLtyT$,
tltLtpPltp
PplPt(
L$,xTQ(,
P(t,P(,t
LlltplP
ltlPltpPlt
ltpPL,
t(P,$
pttlPltlt
ltltLlt
1$,(Hxy,
tTx,L,P(
TU-,$
tltLltlt
PltltL
U$,(tP
pPllP(,
pltLl
tLlPL,P
ltLltp,L
tLlt,
U$,(,
ltLltlPP
,r-LP
LPPplt
tPltLttp,
l,tpl
tlPpPL
PlPll
tltplP
,L,P(t
PL,P(P(
PlPltlPptt
tLP,H
tltLlPplPp
Pp,$P
Q1,L,
ltLtPlP
lltpltLt
PpPltlPlt
Utp,L,L,P
tpPt(
,L,P$
ltLtp
ltp,P
L,x,,L
lltll
PltlPptP
ltLtLtPl
L,P(P,P
ltltl
Plltl
LlPllPlt
ttpPpPt
,PPxPM
ltltpPltL
PplPlt
lPpPp
ltltLPP
L$(,P($,L
tPp,L,HP
pHt(t
tPltplt
ltltlP
ltLltlPp,(
L,P(tP
LtTxPP(P,l
lltlt
lltLltLtlt
Ltllt,(
,($,,
PTQ(P,
$,(P,
p,,L,L,,L,
tlltlt
tlltl,L,
(P(P,(,
$,,L,(
$,L,,L,$,
$,P(t
tltlP
pPltlPpPpl
plltl
ltltlP
lltLt
tltlltltt
ltLltLP,(P
,P,L,
PlPL,pP
lPpPl
ltPpPtL
Pltll
tLtLltll
plltl
Ppltl
ltLltp
,(P,P
LtPtL
ltltPpl
lPlPpP
ttLlPpPt(P
Q-(,P
P(lPl
PTx,,Ll
lltll
U,L,L,,L
tltltlt
tltltlPplt
LtLtlPplPp
,L,L,($
Lt,ptll
llPplt
ltplPll
(PPp,LHltl
lPplt
PllPL
,P,LP
Qu-L,P
ltltl
ltltpP
L,L,Pl
ltlPll
ptLt,p,P
L,L,,x
Ppltp
PptLt
,$PP(,
lPpll
pPtlP
(tLP,L,
,T,Lt1
ltLtL
tpltL
P(,P(l
ltpllt
,,tPp,p,L,
P(xPp,pPP(
PpPltl
lltll
pPltlttpP
,L,,L,
ltLlP
ltLlt
$,Pp,
pPtx,xP
P,p,t(t(P,
,$P$,
ltltl
tltltLl
1H,PLP
,L,L,(,tp,
lltll
tltLlt(P
,tLt(t0t
ltlPl
ltltL
lltPp
,t(P,,L,P(
,p,$Hltl
PpllPpl
ltLt,L,
P,Ptp,tP
VQt(t,(
P(P,L$
pltPptp
tltLtlltPl
tltlltpPp
t(tLtp,,
$tPtLH
LtltLl
tlltL
$,LP(,
PLP($t
,Lt,PLP,
lltltltltp
tPlltLll
plltP
pPtt(t,L,
PLT-,
ltltp
tLlPlP
L,,(,P(P
LtLPLPLP(
PptLlltP
tpltltL
PpPplt
$,tLx
PptLPPL,P(
$tLQ,l
(P,L,
P,,L,PPx
Pt,L,,L,P(
P(,P(,$$HT
tlltlP
pPtpP
lPptltl
1P,(tt
,t(tPpPP(,
P(,,x
ltllt
ltlPltltLl
tTP,(
P(x,tpPt(P
lltltlt
pltltpltL
pPlttltl
t(tPptPLP,
LPL,HTt1P
LltLtl
PlPlt
pltLlP
($P(,$P
pTP(P,L,,
,$,L,,px,P
(,P,(
UP(tl
LtlPpt
ltpPl
Pltllt
1,(P,(PLPP
LPPLt,L,,P
HTt(P
PltlPp
llPpltltpl
PllPp
t(,L,
p,t,L,,L,$
,L,(P,(txx
UtLt,L,(P
LTx$,$,
PplPltltp
ltLttL
ltLltp
PptPltLtlt
]P(P,L
PPLPt(PPp,
pltltl
tltLt
PltlPp
tLt,,P(
,L,PP(PL
,L,t,P
(P0PLtLxtL
PTtP(,
tlltlltLtl
plttLlt
ttLltLlPpl
,u(PPp-t
,L,P,P(,x,
lPlPltL
lltltltlPl
(,t(,
P,(yt(tPp,
P(PPL,ptPp
PtTttUu
Ttx,M,L,($
P(P,L,
,$,P$ll
Pltll
ltLltLt
L,PUTQx
L,,(P(,P
tltltllPlt
lltlt
tlPlt
PtL,P($PLP
TPP(,t(P,(
tPL,P(P,(t
LP,pPPL,,(
L,L,$
lttpPp
pltpPtlPpt
tLltPl
tpPtLtpP
,t(,T-0yPU
PP(P(,P(P,
LlPpltl
ltLtL
LlptP(P
(PPL,P(,L,
PPL,P(,P(P
,tPpPLP,P(
L,P(,
P($,$P(PH,
L,L$,
LlltltLtl
tLlPpltplt
LltPpltplt
pPptlPtp
Qy,tuQxt
t0PP0P(,,L
ltlltp
tltLlPltl
tltltl,
$,LTQ(P0PL
(,L,tLP
t(tPL,p,P
pPpPP
L,,P(
tltltpltlt
lPltp
ltLltLlPpt
TyyTx,q]Q
(P(xtTPpxQ
tlLl,
tUPPxTu,L
,L,L,PL,,(
P(PP(,,H
t,pPP,L,LP
pP(,P(,$,
(P($,$
L,,L,l
ltLttPlP
ltLltPxlPl
pltltlP
pPtlt
P),PPL,,L
,(,xu)P
lPltllPltL
tltLtlP
,L,LQPPt(t
M,L,(
,p,P(t
,P,y,L,P(H
H,L,H,
tLtPpl
tpltpPltlt
Q,L,(
L,pt,p0t
-x,PLT,P
LP,L,P(0t,
HPp,l
PlttLlPt
lPltlP
PllPtpP
0P,$,P(,,L
yTxPx
(,L0x$
,L,P$,
PptPpl
tLltLtt
(t1P,L
L,,(t,TPpt
x-(t,LPP(t
ltLlltp
pPltl
lPltlt
(P(tHP(P(
,($xT
t(t,(H
uH,PP
P(P(,,H,
L,,L$
tlltP
PlltLtPp
pPpPlt
PTP,(
,,Ltt(t,,
]xP(,uTUPP
(PPt(,t
lltLt
tltLtlPll
ltltll
tltlPp
Px,P(,$
(P,LP
-H,Q,L,
(P,(t
tPplPltplt
tltpPptl
PpPtPpPy
P,L,P(
,,xUP(t(
t,Lup
PL,T,P(
tpPltltlpl
lPltLlP
tltlPptlt(
y,L,P,L
P,T9(
PtlPltl
PpPptllt
PpPtpPlPtL
tLyx1
LPx,,L,
]yUyxP
P,pPL,,
Htp,p
tLltPl
ttLlt
lltltltplt
ltp,l
t(,,L,P(
$P,(,L,
t,P(,L,$
LPpPtH,
MQ(,PP
,H,,L,x
pltpPtpPpl
ltlPpltLt
,L,L,P,
L,,L,LPP(t
t0t(T$
PP(tpll
tLlltPltPl
Pltpltl
tltLltpPtL
ltlPltLlPt
PplPlPL
PTPpl
ltltltL,L
,P,L,(HT
,(Q$-
$,L,P(
PtlPllP
tltlt
ttlPlP
U--P,(
$,(,,LPP,
tPLyxQyyx
xUy-P(t,L,
$P(PH
,ltPlPp
tltll
tlltlPltLt
LllPl
tptll
tlltll
,(H,,(P
PptLPLP,L
uUuQtUuL,(
H,L$,
PpPtLtLtlt
PpPptltl
1P(P(
L,L,pPL
xyx-t(P,L
1P(t,L
ptPlLll
PpPtLt
tltLtllt
Ltltltltpl
PltpPl
t,pPL,L
L,lTTlPtLP
0,P,L,,(P,
ltlPptLtp
tptlt
pPltP
UQ(,P(
,,L,,$tPLP
UyUx,P(,
2QLu,P
(tltPllttL
tLtltlPllP
tllPl
tlPptlPllt
L,pTt
Ppt,L,P($,
,$P,(
$,P(P
]tq,p,P(P(
tLtltlPtlP
llPlPpPp
PptPptLt(P
P(,P(P,
P,L,tLP
,,p,P
UQ(,(HPpP
PltltltltL
tltlt
tltltltllt
lltLltll
Pltl,p,p
,L,L,$,
pPLPtTu(
$,L$,
P,,L,$
]L,,p,,t
LlPpltpllt
ltlPpltltt
lPpllPlPt-
pPuQy
yy,(P,L
tltPltl
ltlPlltlP
ltltlt
Pltpllt
PLP,(
PpltH,L
lltl,
]P(P,H,$
,L,$,(,
t(P,$
0,,L,tpy1t
Px0$t
ttpPplPptL
tlPltLltlL
P,xTxxt
UyPMP,(
P(P,L,
tplPt
lH,L,-
Qt,L,
$PlPltlP
,H,P(l
lltltLH
t(,(x,
P$$P$,$,(P
,p,P,
,L$,$P
,(P,L,
L,,pPP
PpPltLtlPl
tLttLtPpPt
tlPpl
L,,L,(P(
,L,pT
Ut(,P
(P,(,P(
PL$,L,($tl
tlPl,P
,pH,L,(
$P(,,p,pP(
xUPP(
PPL,P(PP
tltLtltLlt
LttLtptPpt
Lltlltt(PP
-P(,,P(
L,$PLt
,t(P,L,,x-
ltltl
t,L,,
P,(PH
P,$P($P(H
L,PtPp,
PpPltLtltL
ttLltPpPlP
PpPpt
UyP(P(P,L
tx,pt,(PL
,LP,pl
,$Plt
tltLP
LPLHt,L,(
PH,p,(,P(P
L$x,pP
Q(P$,Hx
ttltLtLtPl
tLtPplPtpt
UP(,,p,P
P(,,xTtT
UuPLT
t(tt0P,
t(,PL
$,L,P,
$P,(P(,l
tH,tH,H
,p$P(
H,(tLxP
P,L,$
1P,L,
tlPpt
ltpPptpPl
tltLtP
UuP(PLtHt
(P,pHtPx,p
,P),P
P(P,L,
Ppl,ptp,lP
PtLPH,
tHt(P,L,
$P(tpPP(
(t0t(
PtpPpt
ptPltPtPpP
LltLt
LtLPPL,L,p
UxtLttMPLP
2PLt(l
PLPP(P
(H,$t
PltltptL
lPl,lt
PLlPL
P(,(P
P$,(xPxPL
(,pt,,
tpPltLttLl
tLtPtp
ptPpt,p,PP
UQLt(t,
PPpPPL
tTxtPp,Pp
$t(ttlP
tl,L,$
tPlltltPpP
PH,(,(P
$P(,ttLP,L
,L$,p
QP$,(P
(P(P0
ttLltLtp
PllHLtltPL
PtLtPL,T,p
-(t,L,t(PP
LPt(txT
uPLPt(,
,HPLP
(P,tL
tltLlltPlt
lPl,lPp,
lPpPHP,$(
L,,L,$
(P,$,
UQ,L,,P
LttLltLtlP
ltLttPpPpl
LP(PPp,tT
1PL,xPxT
,pPPLt,p,
PLtxPpUx
ptx,px
P,L,P
,Lllt
ltltlt
ltllt
tPpllt
tlPpPL,P,H
-,L,(
,LPx,,(P,(
ttLPp
tLPpPpl
tLPPxTP
0PHtTtpTtT
L,,LPP
tPytT
TtpPt(t,(x
Ptllt
lt(P,pl
PllPlt
tllPplltll
PpPL,P(P
L,$,($$
PHPPT
,L,P,
t(xt,(P(t
tLtlPltL
PltltpP
UP-xx,LP
UyPT,,
tLxx,P(xyP
QuLt,
pPt(P,p
PpPpP
tlltl
ltPpPL,P,$
H,$,L,
QqyP,,
xt,Q,(x
LlPpHtLtPp
tplPtP
\L,p,
,xx,x,pyxP
xTtxy-$,L
HPp,P,L,Pp
,LH,LtTttL
(tPq,
ltltltltLl
lltll
t(t(P(,L,
$,L,,
P(H,$P$
uUp,P(Tx
ttpPtLtllP
LtPLt
t,(t0tPxUy
,t0xT
tpPPpH,Lt,
p,PLPPptTt
UxUyPt
LtLttxTt,
tltllPltll
tLltllP
tlltltltlt
P($,$$
qp,L,P(x,p
lPpPt
PLlPplt
P,(PP
,(PPpT-P
TxQQ(P,
Pp,L$tTt
PtLt,L,,(H
PP(P,LPpPP
,xtLt(P0$x
tltlP
tlPllt
tptPp,P(P(
,P(,P(
,LP,L
y,L,,P(,P
(P(xT
tltLt
tptlt
P,LPxU
t(xxPt(P
,pUut
plt(P,P(P,
PL,PLtH,p,
yuLttPt(t,
$tPpt
tlltltltll
tlltllt(tP
,(,$,
UyPpQ(,PLP
ttLtPptPt
,,L,$
,P(t(x
,UPT(
PpPtLt(t(P
(Ht(,PLttL
zPptLlP
tLtL,,L
M,-L,L,pP
x,L,t
tPptLtlPL
P(t,t
0tTt1P
tLHPT,LP
t,L,L,,p
uUxtpPpt
tpltl
tltPltpl
PptPL,L,,H
L,L$,
$,tTxt
,,P,L,tP
PltLPPp
PpPplPt
Pt(ty,
L$t(P(HPp
PL,t,L,t,L
]xQxP
xtPL,p,tU-
0PPLl
ltltl
tLP,L,,L,(
pttptP
ltlPpt
tTPxPxt
(,$,L,P
tt(t(
,Pp,p,(P(,
P(tPLt
UuxPpPP,LP
UuQ(,P,
PtLtLtLPPt
LtLt,pPP(t
,L,,LP
L$P(P,($
P(P,,P
(P,pPtLx
yPL,UP
xPlPl
ltlltl
ltPp,P(
tp,,(P,p,0
,(PPLTP,L
(tPtpt
p,pPt
,P(ttLt
xQt(t1,xUP
p,L$P(,$,P
Qx1PH
ltpPlPLt,l
P,P(P,(PPL
P$P(,xP,
($P(,P(
t(tLtP
Pl,p,(P,(,
P(,PLttLx
Pxx,LPP,x
-pPtLl
t(,P(P($
($,$$,0
pPtLPPHPp,
,(P,(
L,P(,
Tt(P,L,P
L,P(,tLtP
uPxyPtQL
-p,tp
P,(,P($P
t,L$,
,$,L,
Pt(tt(t
(P,P(P(tP
$,,L,($,p
ltltL
Pl,LPp,
yPtTP(
ltltl
PptL,
,L$,$,
(PPtLt
PptPl
tpHPpt(t,
($,t(
(P(t,Pp
LttLtLt
Lt,PL
P(P,(P,p,P
LPtTx
ltltl
P($$,Ppt
,L,P,
pPttLt
$,HLHP
p,,(P,L,,L
,tLxP
qxUutT
lPplt
(t(P,(
,$,P(
L,,xP
QM,L,p,
,tLt(t,LP
QtpPt,P
,,L,PL
yUxxTx
zPptpl
lltLt
P,L,,($,,H
t(tPt(tH,
tLP,(P,M,,
(t,P(,p
0P(PT
lltpPp,L,
L,P(P(P(
$,plP
pttLP,p
P(P(,PPt
Ltx,tL
PL,H,P
$,P,L,L,P(
($,LTx
PPLPL,
(,P,P
($,,(P,$
tPP(tUlPtP
pPP(,TyT
,t,LPp
lltlt
Lt(P(,
pPtLt(t
p,,L,P(xUt
,L,P)P,
,,pt(t
yPt(P
1L,L,(t,
)tUH-t
tlPtL,P(P,
L-$0P,L
PPLPt
P(P,P(,tPL
Px1$(
LH,LP,(,
UuLPtLu
L,,P,(
tLP,(,L,$
P(P,p,0P(t
tptPpPLt,l
,P(,(P,p
L,PTx
(PH,L,P
UQLPLttx
t,p,P,
$,Lt,tPx
PlPp,tHPpP
t(P(P,L,
,,(tP
VHPlt
llPltLPL,
(P,L,($,$,
,L,$PpP
PLt,tLtpPP
PP(,,
P(P,L
tPytPL
uptLll
tpPlPpPtL
ltltlltltl
lltlt
lPlttL
LPQ(P
LtpPp
t(tt(,LP,L
LPzUP(P,L
,LH,p,
tltlt
P,L,,L
$P(xxPt
tlPtL
tpPltP(
L,L,x
L,$t0H0
,(,L,
,L,HT
ltlPp
tptPLPt
,$,,L
PpPtLtplPt
LlPptPL,L,
UL,L,L
H,$,L,
P(P,p
lPpll
llPpP
l,L,L$
tltplt
L$P(P(P,
pPTPQuPu
(tPptPp
,plPl
tltLttltt,
ltlltl
Pt(tPl
tLlPtLtPpl
L,tPpt,p
(u,LtT
,ptPt
tltllPt(l
tLtlPLPL
tltLlPltlt
lttltPL
L,P,$
(H,T,
$,P$,t(
ltlPll
tp$PP
ltLtPplPp
t(PL,
$P(P,L,,
--,,(
L,P($,P
$P(,,
LPy,LPx
Uxy0xy
Pptltl
lPptl
ltllPpl
Pl,L,
tltlP
tLtllPp
HPH,(H
$,,$,$
xPyyTxP
-(,L,tL
yyPupP
PLP(t,,
tltllt
LtltLtl
tLP(P,L
,LTtyU0
0P(P,
lPHP(
PptltLllPp
PtlPt(,,P
L,,LTxP
tUU,P,(
PtpPt
PtLtp,
(tPpttP
ltltlltltL
ttLttltltl
tLltp,pP(
,,H,L,1
L,(tPyTt
y-LyP(
(tLtP
ltltll
P(Ppt
pPPlP
PllPplPplt
,L,(P(
P(,P(,,P
(xTQPx
yTy1t
,PLx,
tLlPltP
(tLlP
tltPltp
lPltlPl
pPptLtt(
(P(P(,L
UutPyyT
y0,xT1L
P,(P,L$PPt
HPHpPH,L
pHtpPL,l
(tPptL
tLtplPllPp
tLtltl
lPlltPlt
tpH,P(
H,(P,
H,,$P,,$Tx
,t,L,(tpT
$tPpt,pPpl
tlltll
tltlPptPp,
tlpl,t(
ltlPptltpl
tLltltpl
ltltlptPlP
PLP,$,
P,$x,(
L,L,,$(P(P
UP,,PT
UxTyUP(P(
PPyQpx,H
uPp,lPl
pltLl
,LPtPpT,(l
lPltPl
tLtlltLl
pltltp
P,L,H,
P$,pTtyUP$
,p\PLyTx,H
,,L,,$
P,ptP
PHtltlltpl
pPltLltl
tltPpPLlP
tlPP($tp
PLPLltl
tlPtlPll
lPltpP
lPlPp
,(,L,(t
P,P(PPL$
(PLP$PP
llPlt
lttlltp
tlPltlt
Pltltl
tltltltLlP
H,H,L
$$,,(
P,($P$P,
,t(H,
($P(,P
P(tll
(ttplltl
tltltlltl
Pltpt
Llltltpl
pllPltltlt
tptH,t(,P
,L,P(
P(,P$
L,L,P
$,L,,L,P
,L,PL
p,Pll
p$,tLltllP
ltplPlP
(P,(T,p
tltLtPpl
ltltlt
tltltplPlt
tltLlPpP
(P,(P
P(H,(
,L,$,(,P(P
L,L,P(
PLP(,
PtLPP
Pl,(PLtP
tpltlt
ltltl,L,
$,L$$,$
ttLtltll
tltltltltL
Pltlt
ltllt
,tLP,
L$,p,
lt(P$
tLllt
lPpPltltlt
LtpltLt
tltPl
lttLltlPp
,L,,$
,$,L,$,L
VtlLlLllPp
lPP(,$
L,$,$P
P($P$,P
PltLlt
pltptlt
lltltl
lPplltLltl
ltlPp
lPLt(P,$
P$$,$P(P$
L,,P(P,p,x
Tt,Pt
lt(P(P$,
P$,P$
tLtPptP
tLltL
tLtltlPltl
tplltllPlt
lPpltltlPl
PtLP(,L,$,
P(PPuMy
L,,P($
ltLtlP
Ptllt
tpPlt
LlltllPlP
tplPtltlP
ltLtltLt
H,L,P
P$,P(,
P(P,$
Q(,P$
PtLtLt
(U1P,
tltltltLtl
tLltL
lltLtltt
tlttLltl
PltpPpHPP(
,L$tLtPpP
,t(PPtl
tlttLttP
($P($
L,PHP
PptPlPp
lltLtltLtp
lltLlltltL
ltLlt
tltlPlltlP
tltpPltltp
tPL,P(,
Q(P,(
ltltll
UP$,$
tlPpPtltlt
ltlltp
tltltLllPl
tLltLltL
PlPplltllt
lPllPpPlP
Pp,P(P
$,L,(,
$,($,L
L,Pp,$,H$,
PpHlt
Ltltt0P(
(P$,$
lltLl
tpPltLlt
tlltlt
ltlPlltp
tltlt
(P$,$,
L,t,L,,p
_I,(,P
PLPHltPp
,,$,$
PltLl
tltlt
tltllt
PltplPp
lltllP
ltPlttltlt
L,P($
(P,$,$$,
P$,L,L,,LP
(P(,,p
Utllt
(,L,$,
H,L,P
tllPptltlt
tlPlPl
ltltltl
tlPlltltll
tlPpltltll
t(P,L
(P$,$
U1H-$
,ptHtPt
p,L$,
$H,$,
PptllP
ltpltltltl
tlltltltll
tLtltlltlP
ltltTt
LtPpPtPlt
t(t,(P
p,,pPpll
tH,P($
($,L$
tlLlt
ltlPltLltl
ltlPpt
lltltplt
ltltltHt
,pP(P,L
L,H,$t
tltlttLt,L
$,(P,$
$,L$,L$
Pltlt
tlPltt
ltltl
PptllPl
tptLlP
Ult,L
tLPltpP
,(P($,L
tlPlltPpll
plltl
tlPlt
ltllPptltl
lltlttpllP
ltllt
yPp,,
,tLtl
Lltll
tlltllttl,
($,$,$
ltpPll
tPltltltlt
lPltltltll
PpPltll
tltLtllt
tlPlPl
tLHP,L
,$,P(T
RPp,tllt
LPL,P(P,
$Hx,(,P
$,HH,H
LllPltltll
PpPltlP
tlltltLl
PtltLlPlt
lltlltl
lltltlltp
llPlPllttp
tlPpPP(
,p,L,(tPu
xUtpPL,
2HPpt
t,tpPll
ltltlPL
llPpP
PltlP
tltltll
PtLltltlP
Pptlt
lPltp
H,t(P
PmPp,
Uy,Hl
PP(,P(
$P(P$,
(P,$P(P(
H,$,(P
Pl,L$,L,H,
lltltLl
PltltlP
lltll
Pltlltlt
tlPllPlPtl
PLH,L,L
P(,px
QLllt
tlPpl
$,L,(P,(P
P(P($P(,
P,H,$P
P,L,$
,$,P$tLt
plPptltPl
Ltltpltll
lPltltltP
PlPlltPplt
lltltltltl
ltlltltlP
ltltlpPptL
tH,H,,$,
PLtt,(
PLxTP
),LtL
PtlPplP
PTx,L
$,$,H,(
$,L,P$,
(t9P(
$P($,
P,($P,L,
ltltLll
Plltll
tltlP
lPltltlP
ltltt
tlPltLtltP
ltLltllt
lPltLtH,L
PtxPH
z%P(tLll
tlPptLt(P
HPqy$
P(,$P($,H,
P,L,L,$
L$,L$,
pltPlt
tlltlt
Pltlt
tlltl
tltltlPltL
PLt,L
(P,L,
UtPpP
l,L,p
ltltl,L,
lltpl
tpPL$,$$,
PLP(tP
H,H,(
ltlPlLH
$,(P$P
lPltll
lltlltP
Pltltltltl
PlPlPltltl
tLlltLltlP
tltLl
Lltptlt
H,p,t(,
H,L,(P
,pPP,
uHPplPP(P
lltLP
H,L,L
Plt(P(P
P(P$$
,,H,$,,
,L$,(P(
lltltl,P(P
(,,LP
ltllP
tltltltLlt
ltlltltlt
lltll
tLlltpltll
tlPpP
Pp,P(P
H,L,H
x,(tLP
tH,,H,H
lxPL,t
tllPpttltL
,PTP($
H,(P,
H,,L,(P,L$
,L,$P
lPP(,
Pl,$P
tltlPlltl
Ltlltlt
tLlPlPt
lltltlP
ltltlltlt
pHPlPp
,LPpP
z,t(,
{,(H,(
PPlt(t
,L,,L
PTtP$
$tLt(P,L,(
$$,P$
,P($,P(
PpPP($P(,$
,H,L,,
lltll
tltlt
tLllP
tLtLPP
tlltltlt
L,L,$
qtp,H
LtLP,p
lPlPlP
tllPltlltL
P(,LlP
PllPp
tHH,L,$P(P
tPPL,(P(t
ltllPtl
tltltlltlt
lPplP
tlltllPp
PpPltlt
PptlPll
lPHtLtllPl
tLltLltLtP
p,P,,L
(tPlltlp$P
tH,L,,L,P
tltll
LltpltL
tl,L,P$
,$,L,,LH,
pltplt
P,L,(P(P$
plttll
ltlltlt
tllPltlt
PplltltPpl
ltlPll
tp,lPlt
t(,L,
$P($,P
NQtL,
,pPlPp
lltltLllP
tltLllt(P,
L$($,$,$$
$,L,$,
,$,$PL,$,(
tlltPH,L,
P$,(,H
(,L,x
ltllt
ltltltlPp
tLltltlPlt
lltPlPpltP
pPltlt
tltLtltp,,
L,,$,
P(P(P
Pp$Px
pllPp
ltlPl
tLltltlltL
lPp,L,L,
P,,(P$,
ltllP
lt(P(,H,(,
H,LPL,
,L,P$
lltlltl
tplltlltll
tltllPlltl
llPpllt
PplPl
tLltlPlPp
tpPpPpl
ltlttlPllt
tp,,L,
(H,L,(H
zPtPP(
*t,LHt($
tLltHtPp,t
(ttlt,pl
tltPL,P(
LH,L,
$,$,P$
P(P,L,L
PllPl
ltllPl
ltlPt
H,H,L,P$P,
LHPP$,,(P(
,P(,x
pltll
PltlPl
ltpltl
PllPplltt
ttltlt
tLltll
PlPpPlPL,P
]t(tp
tPpPL
PHtLl,p
Pltllt
PpllPp
L,,L,
t,(H,
PltpHltl
PH,L,,
P,L,lt
L,P(,PlP
lltlt
ltlltl
lPltltlPll
PllPllt
lPltlltp
t(P(P
$,$$,L,
zPP(t
tl,pH,
ltlltl
lxtlPpl
tlltltPpHP
(P$,,(
$$P(P,$,$
,$t($P(P(,
tltLtlP
PHH,(P,
LHH,(
$PL,P
ltltlt
ltltl
lltltl
PllPltp,p,
tlltlP
llPllPP
H,L,Llt
]tpPL
ltLtLtLtPP
llPll
tlltltP
tlPlltltlP
1L,,H
Plltl
,$P($,L
L,p,t(tT
tltpllP
lltltl
ltltlP
tlPltltllt
ltpPltH
tlltltltlP
pltPp
,(P,L
L,$,L,t
-H,P(
tltLP(P
tltlP
t(,$,
1PQ(P
tlltlPl
lltlP
lP(P(P,P(P
PP(PP
ltlltltll
tltlt
tlltLl
PllttltL
tlPpt
LlltlP
pltLlPpl,P
$P,($,L,
L$,P$$
QLtPt
1(t,(tl
tLtH,Llt
plPlP
$P$,P(,(,
-P(P(,
Pltllt
PH,H,(H,
(,,$,(,L,P
lltllPl
tlltlt
tlltp
tltlt
lPlltlltL
Pltltl
plPlltl
LPH$P
UPp,pTy
tltltlltlt
tltll
tlPllt(P,P
P(P,L,
$,xQpPx$
,$P,(,P(P(
$,(P,p
lltlt
ltltlt
lltpl
tltltpl
tltlPp
ltLlt(
tPltltpltl
tP$,L
,t(P,L,$P
HPLlP
ltltl
lPpltL
PltltltLll
PlPpPL,P(,
L,,(t,
y-(P,(PH08
pHtplP
,H,$P(H,L,
P(,P(P(l
tlltlltll
ltlPt
pllP(
,(P(,(P$
PHTx,tLHlP
ltltl
tltlPlltPp
t(,P(
$$P,L,P
$PH,p
P(P,H
PP(,H,L,
H,$$,P$
pltllP
Pltltlt
LltPllt
tlltlt
lltPpl
lPlltLltt
tpPlPp
tlPltt
-qPuPp
PL$,tLPtLH
,(P(l
lPlltlt
(P,$P
),p,,P(
Q,(P(,P
t,tpll
,L$,L,$,
LH,L,L,P(
ltlltlt
Pltplt
ltlPl
Pltltt
ltltp,pPt
tlPltllPpl
tlPlP
y(PH,(,L
Uu)P$tLtl
llPlt
ltLtl
ltpltlP
LP,(,
,P,($,L
(,P,L$,$t
(P,($
L$P$,$,$,L
yxxTtx
ltlttl
pltltlt
pt,LPPplPl
tlPpllPltl
PptlP(
,L,P$
P,L,,L,
lltltl
tltLl
plPltl
PlltltL
lltLP
PpTyP-L,P(
-P(P(,P(,$
,L,P(
]PH,l
xxTxx
tlltlPt
PlPll
tlltltllP
tltLllt
lPpPtLtp
,(HP(
PLlPltltl
ltltLtlPp,
$$P,L
H,(P$$
(H,,$P(
$,$PTx-
]tL,,
L,$Pt
lltltl
Ppltl
tltlt
ltLP,L,,$
xUP(,P,
ltllP
y$,L,
tllPl
tltlltL
p,t(PL
PtLltlltlt
,L,(P
(P$P(,L,
RM\T,(,(
P$,P(
tltpltltlt
tltPplt
llPpltLH,L
$,L,t(P(t
QM,P(P
,($P($
P,(HP
ltl,tH
(PPpl
($P(,p,P(
PPxTt
]PLtL
tltplt
tltLl
ltlltltl
ltLllPlPpP
plltlltLt
t(,P,$$tL
PH,LP,$P
P$P(,HP,H
,,L,H,
P(,$P
tllPlt
pPptltL
PlltLllPlt
MP,L,L
,$,P(PH
ltllPL,
,PHPL
Pp,T,
L,P(t
plltll
tlltLltl
tltlPlltlt
tpPlltllPp
ltH,l,LH,p
HPLPt(
tpPlltltPl
tltl(
,(,L,,(t,
L$,(P(
Vt,p,L
,,(,$
tlltlPltlP
tLtltLltpl
tLttlPp,p,
$tTPLPP
(P(t,HP
1tPLP
LltLlP
lPltp
ltltl
ltltltllt
plPpPltlt
tHPLH
lPltL
$,L,P$PHH,
LPL,P(P
,P(P,L,$,L
ltllP
ltlltl
pltltlttpl
tltLlPpPlt
p,,L,
P(P(P$P,L$
,(H,H
PLHtpHlt
,H,(PP
(P(,P(
,L,PL
pltLtl
ltllPltpPp
tltlltpltl
ltlPtll
Plltlltllt
lPlPl
tLt(t
Pp,lt
tLltltptpl
P(,,L
LHPp,p,H,H
,pPP(,$
$PL,,LH
,L,$tP
PptlPlltlt
lPlPtpH,P(
,($$,$
$,(xPL,P
,(,P,
$,$,L,PLt
$P(,P(P,P
H,P(PPl
ltltl
lPlltl
Plltll
tlltplltll
tpPlltlPlt
LttHPPLtHH
lPlPlPltt
$,$,LH
,p,t(HP(
P(P,L,(
P(P,(P,,
PtltLtp
ltltl
ltlPtltlP
ltltpltlP
tltLlPp
P,L,P,
$P(P(H,$(,
H,P$,L$
$,L,,L
,PLtL
Txx\xPp,L
$P(,,(P(
lltllP
tlltlPtlt
ltlPlPpl
tlltltltlt
Plltl
tPlltlltl
tLtltLlt
$,($P
HH,p,
,LP,L,P$,$
t$P(,P,(P(
UtH,p
ltlltl
plltpltlPl
tltLt
tLlPltllP
plPL,,L
L,L,(P
L$,,$,$
$,($,P(
pltll
tltplltptP
lPltltlltl
ltlPlPltpP
plPpPltltp
lltlPplPl
tlPlltL
L,L$P
TyUxQ
ltLltLllt
ltltltLlt
ltLtltltPp
ltPpt,L,L,
$,$,(P,L
P(P(,($,L$
Lltltlt
ltLtl
ltplltlt
ltplPlt
PpPlPtlP
PtLlt
ltltL
lltlt
ltltlPplPl
tpPt,pHPL,
PtlPlt
LPP(t,P
HyTyx
$,L,P(
tltllPp
lPlttlPltl
tlPplltLlt
,P(H,,
$,(P,,
tLtltl
tltll
ltlPtL
tltlltpllt
ltplPplPp
Plltp
tllPt
lPllt
PpPL,p,LH,
PH,(t(t(l
tltpl
-ltLH,
,LPH,p
H,L,(
PLUPpUxT
zPTPL,L,
P($,t
lPltpt
tLltl
ltLltltpl
pPpltLP(t(
L,P(,
Q(,P,L$,
L,$P(
P$,L,
,L,,$,P(
tpltltll
tllPltPplt
ltllPltltl
PltlPlltlt
ltptplPltp
PltPp
LlPpt
tHPpt(t
tltlP
ptPlPltltL
tltLltLtpP
PPHPHP
tUt1u,
H,L$$0P,pP
lttlt
tltLttpPtp
lPpPlPlltP
pltlPP
TP(P(,P
,$,(,
tlltllt
Llltl
tlltlt
tlltltLltl
PlPlPltlPl
PlPpPlt
tlltll
PltLt
lPlPllPltL
tllPlt
tHtLt
L,,(P$
ltltpl
PltLtPplPp
tllttptPpl
PpPtLPHPL,
VPt(P,(P,(
,L$P(
pPlltl
ltltlt
lltlPplltl
ltltLt
ltPptltltL
tLtPlP
tLtlPlltLl
tlltltLtpl
tpltltPltl
tltllt
ttLt(tHP
LPHt(ltlP
tllPl
tLltLtt
L,(HHPLH,
,L,P(,L,$,
Ltltl
ltPpPlPpll
LllPlltplt
tp,HP,H$
$,L,$
L$P(,L
tlltl
lltLtllt
PltLlt
tlltL
lPpllPltpl
lPlPlP
tlltltl
tLPpPtL
tlPllt
pPltlPlt
,HPLP
PH,(P
Tx-x-
-I,(,(P,(
lltlPltP
plltltlPtp
PtLtp
PplttLltLl
tLlPL,L,L,
Tt-P-,P
($,($P$
ltpltplt
tltltltl
ltllt
Pltll
tltltPlt
LlltLtlPlt
LlPtlltllt
ptlPp
tlltP
lPlPllPlPp
tllPp
tlPpPl
tlPlPlt
lPplPL
Ppt,$
,LH,(
(Q(UyT
PtTPpPxT
uHP,L,
$,$,P(,L,t
Llltl
PltltpPplt
pltLltl
tLtPpltplt
pHPP(,P(
,L,L$,
$,$HP
$,($,(
P,(,LPllPt
tLllP
PpltL
lltltLltL
llPpPlp
tlltLll
tpllPpltLl
Ptlltl
tltLtltllP
ltltLtLlt
tLtllPtllt
H,(P,$,$,
P,P(H,pP
(Pp,L,H
$,,xxP
QL,(P
lPltpltl
PtlPtplP
pPptPp
PpPlPlPp
P(,H,(
L,(PPl
,L,LT
L,(Pl
ltPltL
ltlPltl
tlltltltLt
pPpPtlPt
tLltll
tltltLlt
ltlPltlt
Llltlltllt
LtltlPlLlt
tLtplt
tlPltllt
P(HPH,
tHPLlt
(P(P,(,P(
Ptplt
tpltPltp
,P(PH,
H,L,$P$,(P
$P(P,L
PltLltl
lPlPllt
tltlltplP
ltltltLltL
tPltpPltpl
tLltlt
ltltllPltl
tLlltltpl
Pl,lPp
ltLltPp
LPplt
$,$,,
H,L,,
QL1tUQP
Qm-L,
P(,$P(PH
tlPltpPllP
lPplPP(P(
P(,H,H
$t-$,(
(PPx0
P,L,P(
Pplltltpll
lltltltltl
ltLlltlPl
PltlltLlPp
ltlltllP
tlPplltLlt
lltlPlPlPt
lPllt
PltLtlP
ltLltp
llP($t
$,P(P
$,$,xP
,L,P,(
tpPltlPplt
ltlPtLltLl
tltlt
,H,L,,L$P
ptPpPtlltP
tltpltlPlP
ltLtPlltLl
tLPptlt
ltltLltLtl
tltlt
LtltlPltlt
tltlPltlPl
ttlPpllP
pltLltLltL
tlPlt
tLlPp
(P$,LPL,H,
L,PHPP(,H,
P,(PUPUx
Pu-HP
QM,L,L,
P,(P($x
ltlltltt
tlPlt
pH,(P(HH,L
,p,$,(,$,
P,LPP,p,
pltpl
tltLlt
LltLltLt
LtPpltlPpl
ltptlPltL
tltltltllt
PltlPptLt
tlPpltp
ltlPl
tpPll
PltltltLlP
H,H,H,P$t(
t(P,L
Qm,L,(P
ltLlltpP
xPtlltpP
tLlPltlPpt
lPpltltLtP
P(,PLP
,pH,pPxP
(PPpt,tQP(
(P,LPt
tlPpPp
PpPlP
ltLltlPltl
tpPltL
tPltltLtlt
lltlPltLtP
lPplltlltl
PlPtLllP
ltlPltltLl
PlPpPlPpt
tltpPtp
tH,($
P,PLP(
H,L,$P(
0P$,x,
L,(P,L,,
lltll
tPplt
tlPplt
lPllt
tpPLH,(
P$,$$,
L,L,xTtPTP
PHPptP
10tLt
lPltllt
tltpPltl
tLtlt
tPpPpPlt
tPlPpllt
tpPtL
lltpltlPlt
lPtlt
lPltl
ttLtlt
lPpHPpH,(P
P$P(,p,t
P(H,H,L,
$tUP,
(P,,L
L$tTl
tlPltp
lPltplPp
PplPl,L
,P(,$,L$,L
tL,P(,P(
P$,L$$,
t(P0PTT0
ltPplt
tpttLtPlt
tlltltp
tLltLl
ttLtlPl
Ptltltltlt
ltlltlltlt
tPpPlPlPl
tLltLt
ltptLltLt
ltPpltL
tH,Lt
$,L,(,PH,
(PLPHPLPPH
,L,P$,$$
P$,,p
,L,L,,L,t
Pltlt
tltlP
tltltltllt
PltLlPtllt
lPltl
PLHP,(H,L
,$,($,
L,LP,,
L$(P,L,P(P
,pt(,L,PLt
p,,t(
tlPlt
tLtPptPllt
tLlPpPtLlP
lPlPlt
Ppllt
lltltp
tlltp
ltLltPlPp
t,HPp$P(,$
L,,LH,H,tH
$,1Q$,
LPp]Q(Py
,,L,t\T
ltLllt
lPltlP
PpPltlltpl
tlPltlPp
ttLl,l,
P,LPL
tplltL
lltll
ltLtll
Lltlt
tltlPltLt
llPtllt
LllPltPpP
tlPltlPpll
tltlPtLtPp
lPltpPltpP
plPlt
lltpPlt
L,L,L,H
,PLP(P$H,,
L$P$,(P,$,
UxTyy
u),,L,
,L,,($
lltllPll
tlPlPltl
lPlPltp
ltltLlltp
PtPL,Lt(,P
$,P(tP
PpPH,HPLtP
pH,pPl
,lPltHtLl
pPltltLlt
tlPltLlPlt
tptLtl
tPltplPltt
lPtltlt
tltltp
ltllPpt
tlPpPtp
tpPlt
tlltLlPpl
PpltPpt,L,
,L$,,H
P(tp,PHt
(P,L,(,P
,L,,L
x-(P,
-,L,P(Pt(P
ttltlt
PltltltLlP
llPpllt
LltLl
,tp,P$
1PLPPptt
LlPltLtPtl
PptLtPltHt
tpt,tlPL
tlPlPltllt
ltplt
tltLl
lPllPltlPl
PtLtpPltlt
LlPlPltt
tlltL
lltLl
PlPlPplPpl
lPlPlt
LltLlP
lPpPp
H,p,H,(
tPLPPLP,P(
$,,L,L,HP
,p,p,t(H,P
,,$,(P$
tyTQ)P(P
yPp,P(
,P(P,p,
tltLlltllP
ltltLlt
tltltltpPt
ltPlPltp,t
Ht(tHtL
1PPll
tpltLtpllt
ltlltLt
HtlPplPp
PpltltLtl
tLtLltltlt
ptPpPlPplt
pltLltLtlt
tlltt
Pltltlltl
lttltlltl
ltLltL
lPltLt,p$
tPLPP
(P,,L
$,$,pt,
PLPH,P(,$P
(P(HtH,t(
$Qqv1%
xyU10Ty
y-P,xT
xTxy0
z-p,t(P,
,L,,L,pPH,
tltltl
llPlP
lPllP
tlt,p
t(H,t
PP(llP
lPltlltlt
tlPlttLtlt
lltLtP
PplPpPl
tltltl
PpPlt
lltpt
PtplPlP
PplltL
lltlt
ltLlPpPlP
ltLltLlP
pPllt
tLltlPlt
HP,L$,
L,PHPL
t(P,(,L,$
,(P,$P,(
ttqu-$yy
P(P$tx0,
VlPL,
p,,L,,H,L,
HtLltllt
ltltltLltL
lPplPplPt
ltLP,LyU$
Plltl
ltpPp
,pPptlt
tptltL
tLtPlPltL
tpPlPl
tltlt
Ppltl
tLltlPltpl
ltplPpt
tlPlP
PP(PH,LPLP
L,(H,p,
tHtHP
,H,,LH,L,(
tyyUyP
UtUy\tT
zQHt,L,tH
tPplt
tLltlPlPl
lPplP
lPlltl
P(,T,LPtlt
tltll
PltltltL
ltPpltl
PpPlt
tltlt
ltlttltLt
lPllt
Ppltl
lltllPltl
tLlPpP
PpPplPltLl
PltpHtHP
(H,L,
P($,$,LH,
pPPp,P(P,L
,,L,,H,H,L
u(PPy
PLTt,pQq
PL,,L$,,L
Pltllt
tptpllPllP
Plltlltl
tlltl
pllPlPp
LlltLttl
pttLltLtlt
PpPtllPpll
tLltLlPllt
tPplt
tlPPL
ltlltlt
ltLltL
llPpl
tplPltp
tpPtplP
plPptP
LP,p,L
Llt(,P(,PH
,p,tH
,L,(P,pP(P
L,(t(P$,L
H,,L,
lltll
lPlPl
PpPlltLtPp
ltlltpltlt
ltpPtplt
pPltllt
PltlPllPlP
ltplPlltPl
tlltltltlP
tltlPtptPp
lPltLltL
tlPlPlt
PllPp
lPplP
,L,HH
,L,HP
PLHP(,L,P(
PPL,P,L
P(H,,H,L
,H,P(t
,x,(t,,
,,L,,L
PL,P(,
lltltl
tlltpllt
lltltLt
Pltll
PtLtlP
LtLltl
ltlPpP
tpPltpl
tLtpP
tltlt
lPplPp
lPltPltPpl
tlPpPl
tplPlPpHt
tltLP,pt(
t,LH,,L,H,
P,H(,H
,L,L,p,(
PLPL,L,(
P(,P(
,(P(x
$,$,x
t(P,L$,L,
P(H,P(H,
ltlPlPltl
llPltPpPlt
tLttltl
ttltPltlPp
tlltllPlPt
lPltLlP
lPpPp
PtlltP
lltltLt
LllPplt
PltPptLlPt
tHPlltl
tLltltpP
,L,H,L,P(,
L,,L,pt(t
tpH,,(P,P(
PPHt,t
,T0PT
P,p-LH,
,(P(,P,L,l
lPltlPpPt
tlttl
ltltltlPp
lltltP
ltLtp
PpPpl
PltltpPlt
tltlt
ltltlt
tltPlt
tlPlPplPpl
tllPp
tptLt
tlPllP
p,lPpt
LHt,LHPH,t
t(HP,P(Ht
P(P($,(PH,
LHPLPt(tt
pPPUP
xH,L,L,$
$$,($
1$,pP
qP$P(PHt,
L,p,P,(l
lltllt
$xUPp
pltlt
lPtLtlPl
PltLt
ltLtlPltlP
ptLlPptPp
tltltp
tlltLltLlt
LllPltlPtL
tltLl
tlPllPp
,p,tH
,,H,,$(P,(
,H,(PP,pP
Pp,ttL
H,t(P,$
P,L,P
Ty,P,L,p
,l,p,(P(,
lltlt
tlPtLlPlt
tptplt
ltpPttLltl
tLtlPpltLl
PlttlP
tLltplt
Plltp
tLltLttLl
tLtPp
tltPp
tpPPlP
HPP(,
H,LPH,(PL,
L,P,L,LP,p
,P(P(P
x-LPP(,
t(H,(P,
,LPP(P
UP(yQL
tLtpt
,P(PHP
lPlPpltpPl
tlPtLlltlt
Ltltpltltl
plttL
ltLtlPlPlP
tllttLltll
tLltLlPl
llPltllPp
LH,H,LHPtH
,pH,(P,L,P
tLlPpP
lPp,P
tHH,p
HP,($
$PHPt
QHtlPpP
tLt,L,H
tltltllPpt
Llltl
pltll
ltltltPpl
lltLtltLll
ttLlt
ltptl
tllPltlPpP
ltltPpltp
tLtlPltLlt
LttlPpPt
tLtlt
tpPpt,ltp
tLPL,H
,PLP$P,(t
tLHPL,L
,H,(,
PLP(,
pPllt
p,,L,,H
pPtlt
Pltpltp
tLtltLtLtL
tLtlPl
PlPplP
tlltl
tlPplt
PlPltpPlPl
tHtPpP
tlPlPL
tLlPpt
tH,(PLP(t
(HPLPtL
PHPPL
tLtLt
tp,P$
L,P$tT
tp,(P
tltlPt
PlPpP
tLltlP
pltPltLtlP
ltltltLtPl
lPltltltL
tlPltltlPl
tltLll
Ppltltlt
tLltllPt
LHHtlPlPpt
tt(t,tp
$x-P,
PHtLttlPPH
PL,P(Hl
tltllt
llPpl
tltltLt
tpltL
tlPllPlt
lPpPlPltPp
pltLlttL
ltlPlPpltL
tLtllPlPlt
LttPtLlPlP
pltLttl
tpHPp
ttLlt
PLP($
,$P,L,H,
Pp,t(P(t,(
Ltpllt
tLtLtLtlPl
tpPltpllPl
tlPpt
tlPlt
tlltLllt
lPltlPp
tltLtltL
PplpltltlP
pPtLtPplt
tlPptpP
PPL,LP
tLlPlHPp
HtPLH
tHt($
H0x,(
LH,P(,P,
tlltll
ltltl
tltLltl
tLltlPl
tltltl
tltlPltlPp
ltltpPltp
tLtLltLl
tLlPpltPl
PltLt
tPplPp
tLtLtlP
lPtpPptt
llPltlP
plP(tHt
tlltLl
,L,(P(
tLP,p
ltpltlttpt
tLlPl
Ltlltp
lPlttL
llPpPplPlt
lPpll
ltltltLl
ttLlt
PtptPpPt
plLlP
tlPlPl
PlPptLl,LP
P,HPl,
L,PL,
PltPltLtl
tltlt
ltLtLlt
tLttlPp
lPltt
Ltltt
lPltpPp
tltlltpPp
tLtpt
LPLltLl
PpllPpPpPp
tpPlt
tpH,Lt(
LtlPLP
P,(P,(tPpP
lTt(P,ptPt
ptLP(lt
ltLltpPllP
lLltltltlt
LltLtlPltl
PpPltLtp
ltltltltll
tPplPllt
lt(tLttlP
ltltLlPltL
tPpPtl
LttLlt
tlPpPpPp
tlPpl
P,HPlL
0P,L,H,$
(P,(P,L,p
HtPL,p,L
tPltL
tltplPplPp
ltLltl
lPltlPlP
tlPltLtLt
pPplPptPpP
tPlltLt
tpPtLtL
tlLlPlt
tltLt
lPtplP
*tPlP
,,L$,$
H,(P(
,$,HPpPt
tPLPtl
p,LHtll
Ptltllt
tplPptlPlt
plltltpt
tLtltp
PltltLltLt
ltLtp
PltLl
tLltLPlPtl
ttLlt
tPptPptt
tPtpPtp
LltPp
tLtLll
lPlPl
lltLlttp
tPltlPtLt
,L,LPL,P
P)tPL
,H,,L,,HHP
H,HHPt
VQpPP
LtPptHP
,P$tll
lPllPlttLl
PlPpPpPL
tLttLt
lPllPlPllt
tLttHtL
tLtlltLlP
ltLtLt
PptLtPp
ltLlt
tlPptl
tLtltLlt
ltltlPltLl
tpltLtPptU
tLltL
PPltLP
,L,L,L$P(,
P(P(P
($,$,H,
$,L,pHt
ttPptPlPP(
tLttlt
lttltLltp
lltlltltlP
tpttLlt
ltLtlltpPl
PptltltplP
tplPpl
PptLtlPltP
tPlltpl
tpPlt
PtLlPp
tLtlP
,H,H,P(,H
,(P(,H,P($
$,PHPp
PLtlt(
ltLlltltpP
tLtLtltl
Ltlltllt
tltLllP
tLltptPpP
ltPlPpttLl
lPpttPptll
tptPl
Pltplt
ltLtp
tplPlPpHt
tt(P$,
P(tT,Hl,LH
,(P(P,(P(P
H,H,LH,(,P
(P,,$
P(P$tLtLt
tLlt(PPp
tltpltlP
tlltLlltlt
tpPtltLllP
plPplt
tpPpPt
LtPlPlPpPt
LPplt
pPlPl
tLPpP
ltLtp
tllPll
PllPlP
lPlPt
tLt(P,
LPHPHt,pPP
(H,,(PH,l,
t(PHPL
,(P,,
L,L,,$
,$P,H,PHt
tLP,H
tLllt
lltllPtLtL
tLtPltpl
lPltPp
tltLt(
tpPtL
tLltpt
tptPt
tPllPl
PltlPHtLt
ttLlltl
PlPltlltlP
lPlPl
tlPlt
tLPLtpP
lt(ltLH
H,L$H,HPL,
p,PHH,pP
HPPLH,
QL,(t
LtPL,PH
pPtLtp
LttltllPl
PltLl
PpPtp
tLtLt
PpPlPltLt
tLPptl
PltLltLt
ltLlPlt
tLltpPlPp
ttltlltLtl
tlPlPlPltl
ltltlPlt
tpHtlPtpt
P,H,LH,L,
Lt,LP(P$,P
tLP,(tp
LP(,P
tlPpPlt
tLllPltpPt
ltLtlPpltl
tPpHPp
ltPlt
LttLtHP
tpPllt
LtltLltltl
tLlPlltltL
tLlltlPllt
tlltLltp'
PPLtLltLlP
tLt(lPlP
ltLtL
PLP(tH
LP(,L,
PH,H,L$
P(P,LPt
Qptt,L,t
tltLttLt
PtplPtp
tLltpltp
PlPptP
tLtpPlPp,t
t(lPpt
tLHHt
LtpPtLttp
tLltPpPt
tpPllPpt
ltlltp
Pltlt
tllPl
PllPlPltlt
lPltL
tlPlt
ttLltp
PL,,L,,$P
,H,p,p,p
(,pHt,LPPH
,L,L,P(,L
,ptLP
tLt,L,
ttLtltLllt
lPltl
PltLtPlPpt
PtHPtp
tpPpPlPLPl
tLPltLtL
t,ltplPp
LtpPp
ltLtltLtp
PltLttl
tltltLl
ltLtlPptlP
tltPplP
tltltltlt
tlltlPlt
lPptlP
tltLtl
PpHH,L,,(P
tHPHt
$,L,$P,L,$
,$,$,H
tLtLt
ltplPptpPp
ltltLtltlP
tpPpHPt
tpHtL
lPplPpPlt
tPltPplttL
tltLlP
pPlPltlPtl
Pltltl
tlltLtlPtp
lPplPLPLH
,L,$,L
P(H,H,
,L,,H
($,($P
,P,L$
P(,tP$tLt
PLu-pPT
LtltpltpPt
LtPltllPlt
PltpltplPl
tlPlt
ttLtHtp,
lPltpPlPpP
ptPlt
tLlPpPpt
tLlltplP
tpltlPp
tltlP
tltllP
tllPl
tLtHPp
PHtp,p,P
$P(P$P(HPL
HP(,L,L,,
$,$,P(P(,H
PL,L,H,H,p
QP(PTtl,
tltllt
tltll
ttLtPplPpl
tpltpPltlt
LtLltlPptl
tLlPt(t
tHtLtp
ttLtPlPplt
lPpltLlt
tptlltLlt
ltLlPpltL
llPltltl
tllPpltPlt
Llltlt
tlPltLt
PlPllPl
PPH,L,
($,H,H,H,H
t(P(lHlt
tH,H,L$,
P(P($,
,L,L,H$(P,
$Q(,P,L
Plltltl
tltllt
tLtpltpltL
lPllPplPpl
ltlPltlt
tLPLPlP
tLPPt
tpPltp
tpPtP
pPplPpPllP
ltplltL
ltLtltllt
tLltlltll
lt$tlP
lPlPlt
t(,H,$P
,L,H,(P
PLP(H
,(P,L$,$P(
$,H,L,
,,H,(P,
LltlPpPptP
pltLtlPp
tLtlPlt
ttpPp
tlPllPpl
lPltlPllt
tLlPltl
PltlP
ltlltp
tLtltlPp
ltltlt
ltllPltltL
ltLltl
tLtltl
(P$,H,(
,t(H,(
,P$P(,L$,$
,Lt(PH,p,
P(,($,$
$$P(H,(
lltllPlt
lltll
LttltPpl
lPltltltlP
ltptPptl
PlPpPPLtL
HtLlP
tpPplPplP
plPltlPptl
LlltlPtltl
PltlPplltp
tlPltl
PltlPlPllP
lltlltlPpl
,,L,,(P(H,
PH,L,t
H,t(P,H,L,
$P$,L,L
P(PH,,(P
tLtplP
tltLlPlP
tlHtPpt
P(PpP
tLltLPL
tPllP
plPltltllP
ltltllPl
PltLt
lltLltlPp
tltlltLltL
PlPtll
tltltLtltl
tltltLtPp
tlltl
tlPlPlP
H,$PH,H,
t(H,(
(,$P(P,(P$
P$,L,
LH,L,,$,
H,L$,
,Lt,tlt(
ulltll
ltPpt
PpPptLtLtp
PplPltlPpP
Ptp,p
tHtHt
LPLtp
lPltp
lPltP
tptPtl
Pltlt
LlPlt
pltll
tltltp
PllPl
llPlPtltp
tlltlPltlP
tltPl
tLltp
P,p,PL,P
L,L,L,H,HH
tH,H,(,H,,
$P$,,(P$,(
PH,$,L,P$P
PP(,L,
L,$P$,
ttLtplPpPl
tlPltltlP
ltLltll
tHPpP
LtPLtPp
tlPpl
tlltll
ltlltl
tlltltllt
PllPpltplp
tltltll
tltLlt
PltlPp,p,p
HP,H,H,p,L
,L,LHP,L$
P(P($H,L,P
PLPLt
L,L,L,P(,(
P(,t(P($P
tLQ,(
L,P)P,t
PHP,(y,L,L
tLtlPplltp
tlPpltLtlt
ttpPt
LtHlt
ltlPl
PtptPpPtlt
tLltplltt
LlPltlPl
tlPltlPtll
pltllPpl
ltlPltPltL
lPplltl
HPHPLP(,L,
,,HH,
P,(,$
P(PHPL
t,H,,(t
t(PPHt(
LPL,,($
p,PLt
p,tL,L
PltLtt
ltltLltp
tlPltltLl
PL,lPptPpP
tLlPptp
tllPpPltl
ltltlPplPp
lPltltpllt
plPtltltpl
PtlPpP
tltltPpl
Pltll
H,PH,H,(P(
H,L,tH,L,L
$,(P$,L,H(
P$P(tH,p
(tHPLPPLl,
tHLt(P
LPP(H,,L$
,L,t(P(
Pp,pPLtLt
tPpPHP(x
tpPltLtp
LtLltPp
tltPpPlt
t,pPp
tlPpt
LltlPlPltp
tLlltLlPt
ltLll
PltLtlltpl
ltltL
PpPlt
lltll
tltltll
Pplltllt
tllPplttlt
ltlPpllP
tltplt
t(txPLPt
PH,LH
L,H,,LH,L
$P(,P,($P(
tLHtpt
P(P,L,P
yPyy$,P(tT
lltltlt
tlPtp
PptlPpHlt
tptLllt
lPlPlt
tpltL
ltLlltltl
tpltpllt
PpltlltlPl
tltPpPlPlt
plPptlt
ltllt
ltllt
PltlPl
Plltlt
PpltPlltll
tltlPtLlPp
H,(PH$,P(,
L$P$,,$,L,
tPl,p
tHt,LP
L,(tH,p
LttLtp
PptLtlPpt
tltlPl
t(tPpPlt
lPlPlP
tltLlPpl
tlPpPt
lPlPltl
pltlltLlPl
tltlPltl
pltlltll
Pltltltl
lltll
ltllt
tlltlPltlt
tlPltllt
tllPllPp
PL,p,P$t(P
(,HP(,P,L,
,H,H,H,L
,p,lPp
tHtp,tHP
PH,LtH,p,
LtHPL,$
tTtp,
,LPtp
q,,L,(,
ttLtlPptlt
ptPltLttLl
tLltLt
tptlt
ltLtpPlPpl
tltltlltlt
ltlPltPltl
ttLlPltllt
ltltPplt
LtltPlt
ltltltllPp
lPltlP
llPlltLltp
lltlP
tLltltltPl
tlltlPltl
Ht(H,,H
,($P(H
,LH,p,
Pp,p,p
ltHt(
tHtHP
,LP(,H,
L,PL,,
qH,p,P(,
tLltLlPpPl
ltLtpl
lPpPltLlPp
tlPtLt
lPltlPlP
tlPltllt
lPlPpPpPpl
PplPpt
ltltLltltl
tllPltltlt
ltltlt
PllPllt
tltPlPtllP
tlPtltLllP
tLltlt
ttLllt
H,L,P$P(H,
(P,(P,(P
tH,LPL
t,L,P
PLP$PH,
PLH,H
lltll
LttLtpt
lPpPlt
LlPlt
tLlPp
tLttp
tltlt
ltPpt
tLltL
ltlltlt
plPltlPllt
PpPltlPpP
tltLllPl
tltPpl
lltlt
tltltllPpl
tltltllPlP
tlltltP
PltlPp
PlPlPlPp
L,H,P(P(
PH,pHPHP
Htp,l,plPH
tHtHP
tp,pP
PLlH,L
P,L,P(
,lH,(
z,tx-(t,H
tPpPt
LtltlPplPl
tpPpPl
tltLlP
lPlPlt
tpllt
tpltlP
lPptLlPltl
tltlltlt
PpltlltL
tltltltllP
tltpltl
pltllPlP
tLHtHP
t(P(H,
(tplP
tLPLlP
P(P($
L,t,p,P
Pyu(PLP,tT
ltltll
tpPpttL
tptlPtlPpP
plPlt
PtltL
ttLPL
ltLltP
ttltlltPp
PplPltltl
PlPltllPlt
ltLtlPplPp
PpPpPtlPlt
ltltltll
PtlPp
tltpllPltl
tltllt
tlPlltltp
tPllPlPltl
ltPpl
PH,p,
ltHPl
,l,H,t
tt(tHt
PL,(lPHPLH
pux-H(t
P$tLPLP$P
pltLPltLt
lPlPplPllt
PltPptllP
tltpP
lPplt
ltLtltlPpl
ltPlPpllPl
Pplttl
ltltp
tltltltllt
lltltlPp
tltltltPll
lltlP
ltltp
PlPlt
tlPlPp
t(PPL
tp,tlP
LHPH,pP
P,L$,
zqtHtLt
PtlltpPlPp
PlPptLltpP
tltLl
tltLlP
tlPlPtLltL
tpPltpt
tlPltltLlt
lltLllPlPl
tltlPl
ltltltP
ltLltp
lPlltl
lltlPlPlt
lltllt
lttllPtllt
ltlPltltL
tptlt
lltLltpP
PHt(H
t(H,t
t(tPp,p
P(HP$H,,$,
,P(t,($
Ql,LH,$,
tLtPpPltlt
tLlPp
llPlttLltL
tlPtl
tpHPtLtLlP
tltLtl
lPltltpPlt
plPlltltlP
ltLttlPpll
tltltptltl
lltlPpl
ltPpPp
ltPltl
tLlPltpPll
tlPlt
tlPpPltL
tLtlPp
tpPHt
PPpHtt(t
t(,P(
,L,L,L$,L
L,L,,H$Px
,tL,P
ltLtltlPpt
PltlPptl
LtltL
ltLltP
tLltlPplt
tLlPllPltl
tLlPlPptlt
PptPp
tlPlPlltll
tLltltltlt
lPllPltL
ltltltltll
tltPpPtllP
tLltltPp
PltltlPltl
PlltltlPlP
pltpt
tHtHt
,pHPp
PpHHPLH
lPLPl
,H,L$$
P($,$
(t,L,$P
tP$PT
pPtltLtltL
tllPplt
tpPllP
tpPpt
tLltLlt
tltpPplt
tPltlt
tlPllPptt
tllPlPlPpl
PltllP
tplPptt
lpltplP
tlPllP
ltllt
lPpllt
lltLll
tllPltltlt
ltllt
tltltPlPpP
tLlPt
ltLltpltL
tLllP
lPlttp
PLPLH,p,p
PLHt,(P(P$
,($,H
p,L,HHPp
t(HP0
tLlPl
PlltpPp
tpPtHPptPp
ltLtPl
plPlPpPtP
plPpllPltL
tPlPltll
ltLtllPpl
lPplltPplt
LlPlPltLtl
PltPpPptLl
pltlPl
tlltltlt
tlltPl
PtLlP
ltlPlPpltl
tlltlPp
PplltLtltl
tltlP
lltlPpPlPl
tlPpt
lPpltLtlPl
lPltLHt
,,(,P
(,P,H
PPpPP$,
Plltl
tLtPltlPtp
lttlPltltL
lPpltl
ttpPltLl
ltPltp
lPltPplt
tLltlPp
tLltlPltlP
plltLtplt
tltLlt
plPplttltl
PpPltLlPtl
LlltLtltl
lltllt
tpltlltltl
tlPlttllt
ltltltlP
ltlltlt
PltLltltlP
pPpPlttltl
tltlt
tllPlPlt
ltltPpt
,(P(PH
H,L,L,(P(P
(P,L,,H
qtllt($,PT
lltll
ltltlt
ltltl
ltLltlPtp
plPlPlt
PllPlPpPlP
lPplPpt
tltLt
tPLPlPltlt
lltLtL
ltlPpt
tllPpPltl
ltLltlPp
lPltp
ltlPll
ltltptltlP
pltlt
tltllt
lltLllPpPl
tltlltltlt
llPpllP
ltlltl
tLlPlt
tlltl
PtlPplPplP
PplPl
tpPHPt(
$,L$,HPHP(
P,H,,
LPpPP
QL,tLP($
tLltPltpPt
PptPtlptlt
LtPltltltl
tlPptlPpPt
tPlPltltL
tplPp
lPlPpPpltl
ltlltLl
tLttLlltlt
tLtLll
tpPplP
tpltltp
ltlPpP
tPlltltplt
PltpPltLll
tlltllt
Pltltlltlt
llPtlPtLl
lltltPp
tLltltlltl
PlPltll
tlPlx
tltltLltlP
ltllPltlPt
LHtH,LtH,p
tLPPLPL,P
Ht(PP
P(H,P$P
$,L,(P,
tt(PH,$
lPpltltlt
lPpll
PltPptllPp
ltLtLltPpl
PpltPllPlP
lPlPl
tLltlPlPlt
tlPltl
tlPlt
ltltlPlPlP
tLtltL
ltLlt
tlltlPp
ltltlPltL
ltpltLtLlP
ltltltltll
tltllt
tlPlPlltlt
tltllPltl
lPlltllPl
lPllt
lltlPllP
tpPltpltlP
tLltlt
lltLllPptl
tltltlltlt
lPlPllt
tLtLlt
,p,t(tL
t(,LP(,(
,tUx-P$
,L,$HP
tpPplPptlt
LtlltlPptP
ptlPptLttL
ttlPptLltL
tLttlPpl
PpPltLt
LltLltPp
tlPltllt
tPpltpPll
PtLtpPltLt
pPtLltlPpl
tLlPpltltl
tPlPltltlt
PlttlPt
PpPlP
tltltp
ttLlP
PltltlP
tpPltlPlPp
lPltltLltp
Pltltltltl
llPtlt
tltlt
lltltlt
tltLtltltl
tlPlt
ttlPlPpPp
t(tt(HPLPH
,tHtLP
H,HP(P($,
LP(,P
ltltlltll
Ppllt
pPlPpltPpl
PlPtLtLt
PtlPtp
tpPltltLlt
tpllt
tlPtLtlP
llPllPptt
tLltlt
LlpllPplt
Pplltp
tlttlltllt
tltLltlt
PlltltllPl
tPlltllPlP
tLltlPl
Plltt
ttlPlPlt
LlPlP
Ppltlt
Plltlt
tlPltPltp
pH,pH
,t(PL
yyxTy
PtplttLllt
lttLltltLt
ltptLltlPl
PpPtPptPlP
tltLltp
PlPlPpPllP
lPltLtPpPl
tLlPlP
llPpPtplPp
ttLltLt
tLtlltLt
ltlPtLl
tLtlltpltl
ltlltltltl
lltlt
tltlt
ltlPlltltl
ltlPpltPpl
tltltPlt
llPltlPlP
Plltltlt
tpltLtltll
tltltLll
llPlltlltl
tLttH
tL,ltH
tH,tL,L
PyPx-P
H,LPLPpP,H
Uu($,t
ttltl
tpPptLtpPp
ttLltpPltl
tLlPltPptt
ltpPpt
PptlPltp
ltltlt
tptLlt
pPltlPtp
tlPltLlt
tltlP
plltltpPlt
lPlPltltl
plPltP
tLlltLttlP
lPlPpPltlt
lltLtPltP
pPltL
tltlltlt
llPltltllt
lPltlP
tpllPltLlP
pPpltLl
PpllPlttLl
tPltL
lPPlPLP
u1x,)
l,,ltL
P(P,(x
tltllPll
tPlPltPltP
tPpPtLtP
PpPtL
lPtLtPpP
lPlPt
tPpPlPtL
lltPl
tllPt
tPlPtLlPlP
lPtLtPlPtL
tPlltPlt
tlltPllPlt
ltllt
tPllt
tltlt
tltltltlt
tlltlltllP
tLltltPpl
tlltPpltlt
ltPlt
lltPpPl
tltPl
PtLlP
t,p,t(P
,lPtL
t,LPP(P,L
P1QPM,P($
P(P,$,
PLP,L,tT
Pp,PL
tltltltllt
tPllPlt
ltltlltltP
p356-3
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 3)
ftsTitle
In the second half of the 19th century, muzzle-loaded rifles were replaced by weapons in which a cartridge fed from a magazine was loaded into the breech by working a bolt. Such bolt-action rifles remained standard infantry issue until generally displaced by automatic weapons after World War II.
As the bolt is withdrawn, a cartridge is fed by the spring-loaded magazine into line with the bolt.
As it is pushed forward, the bolt engages with the cartridge and moves it into the breech.
In the final stage of the forward movement of the bolt, a protruding piece of the bolt assembly catches the trigger sear, so cocking the weapon. The bolt is rotated to lock the cartridge in the breech. The weapon can now be fired by pressure on the trigger.
When the bolt is released and drawn backwards, a claw on the bolt engages with the rim of the spent cartridge, so removing it from the breech. Once clear, the cartridge is ejected.
Weaponry (3 of 7)
Breech-loaded weapons
Major changes occurred in the 19th century. In the 1830s the flintlock began to be replaced by percussion firing, where by a hammer struck a detonator to produce the necessary spark. This allowed the development of self-contained cartridges, comprising detonator, gunpowder and projectile. This in turn dispensed with the need for muzzle-loading and led to the introduction of breech-loaded weapons, in which the cartridge was fed directly into the breech, or firing chamber.
By the 1880s breech-loading had been refined to incorporate the use of magazines, each containing a number of cartridges, fed into the breech as the soldier worked a bolt. Artillery also benefited from these developments, using self-contained breech-loaded shells that could be fired rapidly one after another. The invention of smokeless powder, such as cordite, also allowed firing to take place from concealed positions.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Rifles, breech loading
CaptionText
Rifles, breech loading
**++*
p356-4
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 4)
ftsTitle
A French missile launcher, Vag HOT, being launched during a training exercise in Saudi Arabia just before the Gulf War (1991). These anti-tank missiles were first introduced in the 1970s to be mounted on vehicles and helicopters. The current version has a range of 4572 m(15000 ft) and a 150-mm warhead capable of penetrating over 40 inches of armor.
Weaponry (4 of 7)
Automatic weapons
In terms of infantry weapons, the logical next step was to eliminate the working of the bolt by hand, by harnessing the explosive action of the gun to do the job automatically. Early machine guns such as the Maxim did this by using the recoil of the weapon to open the breech, eject the used cartridge and feed the next one in.
In other designs, automatic loading was achieved by diverting gases produced by the explosion back into the weapon. Experiments during World War I enabled the same system to be incorporated into much lighter weapons, producing the sub-machine gun and, eventually, the automatic rifle. Modern assault rifles such as the British SA-80 and the Soviet AK-47 work on this principle (known as 'blow-back') and give the ordinary soldier unprecedented firepower.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
]-0y8
UQ11x]U]y]
]U9UaU
Ty1TT
y\1y]y
]xUye
]1T]UU
yU]]T
]yY]yT
Uy]UU
]y]yU
]y0UT]1
]T]U1
]U]xU
]yT]x
]Ux]]
UU8x1UT
Q0U0yU-Ux1U0
0y]U]Uy]
]yQ01
UU]1U]
-1xyU
UTyT11
y\U1T-yU0
Ty]yTyUx
]U]y]
1x1yTy])TU
\y1yUTU
]yTUTy10
]y]yy]
]yy]y
yay0x]x1y]
]]0U]
xUyy]yT
y0y]y
9Q0UUUT
]0y1T]U]]
yUyU]
]P1TU
UP9y,
0yUU]y\
]yTP1y1U]
UU]UTy0y0T
0y]yT
]1]y8U]
y]UUU]
]y]y]
0y0QUUxU
1x1U0,]-
1y0U1
]xUUx
]x]U1
y]y]y
\U]y1
]y]y8]y
UU]U1
1Y,]yT
]Uy1U\
]U]y]y
Ty90U]
51T]]189y0U0
]U]y11
Yy]yx
]yy]y
1U0U0
]U]y8y]U1
taQ]yU]U]
9y1U0U
0]1]9U
Y]U]U
9U91U
U]90y9U]T1x9U\
1]0-0
y9]U8
1--110-
1-1]1
19y9U1U
x]U]Tb
191]1
x1U]T
1]]U9
]1]1U
]y11T
1U9Y]
]y]y0
1U]T1T11T]Ty-0
11T11U91-1
]UU]11
-U]1UT]
y1Y]Y]y
1x1yT]UT
U0]-0
f]U11x]]1x9
-]UU9
]yTUUT
1P9y1Q\y1
y]y]y]
9y]U]
U\1P1xy]
]9]TUx
1--01
U\yU0
]UTy]yT
}]y]y
u(y\-
U1]T1
-1]T1
U]y9y]U
y]y]y\
]--,1
9y]y]y]
Q10U1
09x1x10
1xU1U
0U]TUy09
,]19-
-0U1T
y9UTy]y]
U,(U,
-,-,L
U19UT
(-,,-
]U1,-0-1P-0
9Q0-,M
1P18]9y]U1
U0U0,-,0
yx,U01P0
0]]]P
TU11T1T1U01U0y1T
x]yy\y
1U\UUT
y]y9x]UxUU01TU
1yTy1x]y0UT1
U11P-0
1U0-1T-
0]y1x]
Yy\y\
U01U0U10U
]y]y]
]y]U]yU\yTU9
U1-,T
41Q0U10U1T-
-U0101T10U1U-01-0
11P1-0-
-0U1T1U-U0-0T1T1-
]y]y9y
TUUT10y0
-0y1y010,U,
1,U0Q
y]y]y
]U0U1T11U-0U
1T10U0U
T11T1U11
]xUy\
T]y0y1
9U0e1b
10-\]
0U01U0U-,1,T1Q01T101
y\y]y\y
]yUyU
U10U01,T1T1U10-T10U-U
y]y]U
x]yYyTy
0]y8y]yyT
11U\yT
1x1P]P
P1-P10U0--U,Q\
y]y\y
1\9y9Y
y1T1-
,10T10Q0U1T01TU
Ux9xU
-1U0yUx
U1T1T,U111P
x10yY]x1
Uxy]yxUT]
0-1P]
1P1,1T1T1,T0-\
x]y]xy]
Y]yyT
-11]111-
y1T1,U-0U1T0Q01P11
P--0-
x]U\y]y
]y0y1xUTUUTUyT]y0Ux11y|UyTUyU
,-,1-T1U11
9T1U0
P1-01
U1,U1P1P01
]y]y1yT1yUQ]y1y]QQt1uUyUyUyUUUya
]]U9]Y9y9
1Y11]y]
-TU\,U
0U10U,1x-001T10y
T1,-T1P0
UU9T11]1
]U]1]
9U]U1\
1198U1U1
T1U01,UTU-T1U0-U1T-L1
]]]]99U]
Q101T
1y0Q1Q0
01-01U0P1
P1T,U
T-0-0
T0-U,
9y1]1
1U91]
1\:y8191
U101T1P1
QU-0Q10Q
10U-T-
,U0-,U,
]U]U9y9
9U]U1]19
10U1-011U0U]UU-
1U0,U0Q0-0,-
1-0U,-0--0-
U91U9U9y9
T19U91
-T1T9U]y9UU
11x]U
x1T1Q0U011x100P9P
P1-0U0
1,-0Q
T-0,-
]x1U11T1U1T1
T9111]
-01U1T101-0U01U-UT-1T
-,-1P0-,
P)0-,-
-P11x1y110
--111
1T-01T1U0y10U,-0U
Q0U00-0,U00
P,1Q0-0U,T-P
-0,U,U0Q0
1y9y1x1
1]]U]
0T1\19U01U0U10U10U11P1
10]119U1]}y]
x]y9y\y
1UUU0U11
11x1y]1x1yTQU
1UU0yU1y11U1
Q10U0U10Q1,U
0U01P
1-0-,
0U0Q0-
0U]0U
y1U1U01U1
1T11]9]
TU11x1T10U10U01T1
0-0-T
9\y]T1U]
]U]yy
1TU-8U]x9
U]U]1
\UUy9y
y0UTU
]xU10T1y0-1T1P
1U0-5
0y-10U10Q0
-0U-,T
T,-0Q0,
U0-1P
Ue]01U9y]]
\y]y]
0UUU-0U110U1T101-
\U1-0],
]Uy]y]x
1U19U1
0U00UUT1T1T10U0P(
U0U09U
1x1y1UUT101U01U,
9]]19U8U9
11P11
]T1U01U0
UyUxy
,1,1xy1x-
y\U1T]y0
T1]T]
1]9UU
1y1y]1\
10y9U]x]
U11T1U0UU0U]
T1-0P-
}11U]
U1\y]U1
0UT]]
x]yy0y]xy1
yYy\1
0UTU11
-10U0UT1U0UT1
1P]xy0
YUxUUx]U,1T
U191T
]\]]]
U919T
y01y0U0-Q
y10Q0
-M0T,1
yy91y0U,
--U0U-UTU0-]
\yUUy
11y10U0UU1T1T
]19U9U
1T1T1y10U0U0U
1x1TQ0U1
P,-,1
0U9yx
9U9U]U1]91
101U01T1U011T1T
1T-1T1U
y0U-U
P8Q,U,y-
UT]U0U0U19
U0U9]-9y
911T9
U0U01x110U1T1,-
P,1-0-1T1T
101TU
y0U1x9U]
P11T1U0U01,U1T11T1P1
P0-,0-0U1T
x1U0U]U
UTP0y
-U0y01T11T1U01Q
U11--T-
-T1P1U1U]1T]0
yy]y0Q]
,Uu]y1T1Q
1y1TU]]
U0]YU
1T11T1-T-T10Q00U0Q
-P]T11
]T]U0
119y1
]y]U]
]x1PU
-9L00x]T
]xUY]
101T10U0110U01-0]x1U
T1U1y0UTU0y11x9U]
UT9y1
Y919Y]
U]1111
]y]U0
1,1P1
]1y9Ux1y1U1
U10y-U
]1191]1
]U1T1U0U-T1y1U0U-1x90y1x1y0
1U01T]UUU11U]U1y1T1T
9y9y9xU
]UU]]
U1y91x
,T-y\Q1
T10y]
U]U1T
1T1101101U0U001,P0Q0-0,U,101y011y9yU\
TU8y\
9y1Y1T9U
1U81U]\
11U9T1U9U]1
0Q,PT
U1T1U]
1TUT1U0U,U0Q1P1U
,0Q0U0
U0U0U0U\
1y9y9UU]T]U
1U0yYU]1
9U]U\U15Y
9-0U0
1T101
]UU]]
81y9T
1y1-1-
1U11-U,U1--U,
11x1U0U1101U0-U,(P-0Q
,Q,1,-,y0
y9UT9
1\U\U]U1]y1
1T]y1]U]1]U]1UYU
U9U101
a]1]1
19U01U]
T1T1101T1T10U0y5UUyUyT1U,U1x1y]
yUY9yy1y01y11U]U\U19U1y10
110-9T
9T9y91T1
U0Y1T
9y]U0
]UTU]
1U9U1
T1U1U11y9
1TU]TU]UTU09Y1U]UU
9y]U]
y]T]]19y
Y]y118
9y\UUy9y
10y]U]Uy9
U]1U]]
UUY11U01U1U0U1UUU1
119U1
1]11U1
99-9U9
T1U9T1
T1T]U1]1
U11111119
1U]1y1]U
91]1]9U91
99-9:1
9U9U1U1
91^9]
9U1U1
U]]]x
Zy]y]y
1111]1
]y]U1
1]]1]1
1TU1-U
:U919U
]Ua-\1]19
U9-]1
]U1y1U1U1
]U1]y]
]199Z]
T11U]
19U81U
U1U9U9U9
11191
9U19109991]
U1U9Y1U
YU1U111U
]U919U1]1
91]11
]]9U1U1U119
y9999999U0-1
Y0U9U
9-11U\
y0yU,
UU\-0-
-01xy91
by11U
11T1T
]xU]T
U]]]y]
TUTyUy
1x1y1
UT1U0
1U0y0
^-:^:
x10U1y
U]y]Ty]
10U18y1
1\y9y
U01TU
Uyy]U
y]y]U
T11x9U1y8y
]U]xy
UyyUy
0y]yY\yy]
U99y0y
\U]xU
1]y91
]UUy8yU1
Uy]y9y
x]Uy]y
]U]y9UU0y1x
]]yYUU91T
U0U11]1y9
9yU1U9U]
911]99
1y11T
y\y]x]U11
U]y9y9-9
\11]1U9U1U919
1]119U919U1
9U9U9U1]1T1
-1T111U
p356-5
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 5)
ftsTitle
A British World War I tank
Weaponry (5 of 7)
Tank warfare
On the ground, the face of battle was changed by the introduction of the tank and its antidotes. The tank was invented by the British in 1915 as an armored caterpillar-tracked machine designed to cross the mud and trenches of a World War I battlefield.
The tank was later developed into a war-winning weapon by the Germans, who recognized its potential to break through enemy lines and produce rear-area paralysis. Blitzkrieg ('lightning war'), dependent on a mixture of mobility and air support, was effective in the early years of World War II, but was slowly countered by new technology. Tanks proved vulnerable to other tanks, especially those armed with bigger guns and special anti-tank shells. Infantry soldiers were also equipped to deal with the threat, using spring-loaded weapons such as the British PIAT ('projectile, infantry, anti-tank') or the German Panzerfaust.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Outline
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Picture
111Y11-1
-111-
-111-1
-1-11
111111-
U11-111
--1--
11-111
-1111-
U^U11
-1-1-
-11---
----1
11111
11111-
----1
11--1U1
1U1--
1-111
U11-1
1-1-111
1--111
1U1111U1U
1111-1
1111-1
1-111
1-111
-11U1-
-11111-
11-1--1
-1111U-
11U--
1-1-U
1U11111111U
U1111
1U11-1
-111-
11-1-
--11--
-1111
-11--1
1111-1
1-111-
-1U111
111-1--
111-1
1-111-
-111-
-1-1U
11111-
1111-
111--U
1111U
-111U
-1-11
11U11---
1U11U1
11U111
U11-1U1-
-11--1---1
111-1
--111
1Y1-111
-11--
1---11
1-11-1
-111-
111--
1-1111
-111-
-1U11-
-1111
11U1-
---1--
11U111
-1-111111
U1U11-
111--
-111U1-11--
1-1--
11111-11
-111-1-
-1111-1-
1U111-1U
-111-
1-1-111-
-111---
--11-111-1
-1U11-
-1-11-
1-Y1-
-1-1-
-1111U11111U11
-1-11111U
111111--
-11-1-1111-
1-11111--
11-Y1
U1--1
11-1111-
1-1-11-
--1-1111111U111-1-1-
1-1-1U1-111-111
1-111-111
-1-11111-1U11111111
--1-1-1
-11111U1
1-1-11-1111
-1-1U11-1U11-
111--
1--1-1
--1111-1--
1--11
11-1-
--1-1-
1-111-
1--1-11
-1111-,-1-
---1-Y111-
-11--
-1-1-
11111-
-11-1U1
U1U11-111
1-1-1-111U1
1-1-1--
1111111111
11-11111-1-
1-11U1-U
1-1-1U11U11
-1-1111
-1111
-1-1-1U
111U1--
,1--1
-11-1--
1-1U11
-11-111-1-
1--1-11-
1111-1-1-1-
1-1-1-1--1
-1--1111-111
-U11111
1--11-11
-1111
-11111-11
11111U1
-11---11-
1-111-
--1-1
1----
U1-1--
1U1--
1U1--
11--1-
Z-11-
--11111
p356-6
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 6)
ftsTitle
Most modern automatic rifles work on the 'blow-back' principle, in which gases produced by the explosion of the propellant charge within the weapon are diverted to work the bolt automatically.
Some of the expanding gases within the barrel are drawn off through a port near the muzzle into a cylinder, where they force back a piston against the pressure of a spring.
The bolt-and-hammer mechanism is pushed backwards by the cylinder, removing the spent cartridge from the breech as it does so. Once clear, the empty cartridge is ejected.
As the cylinder moves forward under the action of the spring, a fresh cartridge from the spring-loaded magazine is forced into the breech.
Weaponry (6 of 7)
Long-range warfare
During the two World Wars the ability to hit distant targets improved dramatically, culminating in the development of pilotless bombs and surface-to-surface missiles - the German V1 and V2 weapons.
The V1 was a pulse-jet powered machine, fired from a special ramp towards its target, which it hit when it ran out of fuel. The US-produced Cruise missile of the 1970s owed its origins to V1, but was far more sophisticated. It incorporated an on-board 'terrain contour-matching (TERCOM) guidance system', which 'read' the ground over which the missile was flying, compared it to a pre-set computer memory, and corrected the flight path to ensure pin-point accuracy.
The V2 had a liquid-fueled rocket engine that burned for about 70 seconds, during which the missile shot vertically to an altitude of 96 km (60 mi). It then fell back to Earth in a predetermined arc, hitting its target at a speed of 3840 km/h (2386 mph). It was the forerunner of the nuclear-armed ballistic missiles of the modern era.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Picture
Outline
Encyclopedia
WTIEncyclopedia
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIEncyclopedia
Section
WTIgoToSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSection
SubSection
$WTIgoToSubSection
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSubSection
Spread
L`WTIgoToSpread
buttonClick
buttonClick
WTIgoToSpread
Animation
.&+ +E
.&+ +E
fname
CaptionText
Animation
Animatio.tbk
pName
buttonClick
buttonClick
= True
pName =
fname =
"Animation"
defaultPage
fName
/.tbk"
"CaptionText"
close
= False
CaptionText
Automatic rifles
**++*
p356-7
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 7)
ftsTitle
An ALCM (Air Launched Cruise Missile) is launched from a B-52.
Weaponry (7 of 7)
Since 1945 missiles have been preferred both for anti-tank and for anti-aircraft roles. By the early 1970s, wire-guided anti-tank missiles such as the Soviet AT-3 Sagger and British Swingfire had been developed, being fired towards the target and guided onto it by electronic signals transmitted down a command wire trailing behind. Since then, the wire has been discarded and the missile fired down a pre-set laser beam: the missile has a sensor in its nose, which - when locked onto the beam - carries it unerringly to its destination.
Current developments take this further, with the on-board sensor homing in on infrared or heat emissions from the target. As such missiles will seek out their own targets, they are known as 'fire-and- forget' weapons. Similar developments have affected surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), which are designed to home in on the heat and light emitted by the jet exhausts of modern aircraft.