Heat is produced by burning oil or coal in the furnace of a conventional power station, or by nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor. In case of a coal-fired power station, the fuel is first pulverized to a fine powder, which is then pumped in a stream of air through jets into the furnace. The heat is used to boil water circulating through tubes in the boiler/reactor, so creating steam. The steam is then super-heated until it reaches temperatures of up to 600
C (1112
The superheated steam is channeled to a steam turbine, where it is used to drive the turbine shaft at high speed. The steam is then passed through a condenser, where it is turned back into water, thus creating a partial vacuum and so improving the flow of steam through the turbine. The condensed water is pumped back to the boiler/reactor under pressure.
The turbine shaft is linked to a generator, where-in the case of the largest modern generators. Electricity is generated at around 25 000 volts of alternating current. For efficient transmission, the voltage is stepped up by transformers to very high voltages, typically as high as 400 000 volts - otherwise, significant amounts of energy would be lost through resistance in the transmission cables.
In many countries, the output is fed into a national grid system, by means of overhead cables suspended from pylons. A single row of pylons is able to carry the entire output from an average power station. At substations at various points on the grid, the supply is stepped down to suitable levels for distribution to consumers, typically at around the voltages shown in the diagram.
Energy (1 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
In the industrialized world, the vast amount of power that we demand is most often provided by means of electricity - the most convenient and flexible medium in which to transfer power from its source to where it is needed. However, in deciding how best to generate electricity in ever-increasing quantities, we are confronted with an unenviable choice. On the one hand, there is the gradual but inevitable damage to the environment caused by burning coal and oil; on the other, the unlikely but potentially catastrophic risks associated with nuclear power. The principle of electromagnetic induction - on which the electrical generator depends - was demonstrated by Michael Faraday as early as 1831. However, it was not until the mid-1870s that electricity was first used to light streets and public buildings. The first experiments in providing a combined public and domestic electricity supply were made in 1881, when a limited service was made available to the people of Godalming in Surrey, England.
Today, almost all the energy used to generate electricity in the developed world comes from burning coal or oil, or from nuclear fission. In each case the heat produced by the fuel is used to raise steam, which turns the blades of a steam turbine. The turbine rotor is connected to the shaft of an electrical generator. In most developed countries and increasingly in the Third World, the power output is fed into a national grid system.
Most developed countries have extensive and complex supply networks. Power stations are interlinked and centrally controlled, allowing power to be channeled to where it is required and extra stations to be started up to meet peaks in demand.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
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Power station, conventional
--1-1
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Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 2)
ftsTitle
A 660-MW steam turbine at the Drax coal-fired power station in England.
Energy (2 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Pollution and efficiency
The burning of fossil fuels in power stations leads to the emission of several by-products that are potentially damaging to the environment. Fly ash, which results from burning pulverized coal, is effectively removed by passing the flue (or waste) gases from the furnace through an electrostatic precipitator - a series of electrically charged plates that hold back the tiny particles of ash.
However, other by-products pass straight out of the chimney and into the atmosphere, including sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, major causes of acid rain, and carbon dioxide, which contributes to the greenhouse effect. Some of the biggest power stations are already being fitted with burners to minimize the production of nitrogen oxides, and major coal-fired stations are likely to include desulfurization equipment.
At present, less than 40% of the energy released by the burning of fuel is finally transmitted as electrical energy. The remainder is dissipated as waste heat. The efficiency of small stations near cities can rise to nearer 80% if the energy that would otherwise pass uselessly into the environment is used to heat water, which is then piped into a district heating scheme, serving radiators in blocks of flats and offices. Such schemes are already in operation, notably in Iceland and the USSR.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
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ftsTitleOverride
Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 3)
ftsTitle
The pressurized-water reactor (PWR). A PWR is essentially a closed loop in which the combined coolant and moderator - ordinary ("light") water - is pressurized to about 150 atmospheres, and pumped through the reactor core. The core, made up of fuel rods containing pellets of enriched uranium dioxide, heats the coolant to around 325 C (617 F), which then passes through a heat exchanger, where it transfers heat to a separate reservoir of water. This water is vaporized to steam, which is piped off to drive the turbine.
Energy (3 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Nuclear power
In terms of electricity generation, the only difference between nuclear power stations and conventional stations is the means of raising steam to drive the turbines: the coal- or oil-burning furnace is simply replaced by a nuclear reactor. However, this entails a whole industry of its own.
Uranium-235 (U-235) is the form (or isotope) of the element uranium used as the fuel in most nuclear reactors. However, it is only present in tiny quantities - less than 1% - in mined uranium. The rest is made up of uranium-238. For many reactors, the proportion of U-235 has to be increased by a complex and very costly process known as enrichment. The fuel - enriched or natural uranium as required - is packed into fuel rods, which are placed in the core of a nuclear reactor.
The nuclei of U-235 atoms sometimes break apart when struck by neutrons, in a process known as nuclear fission. As the nucleus splits, two or three more neutrons are released. These go on to bombard other nuclei and may cause them to split, thus setting off a chain reaction. The reaction is essentially a controlled version of what happens when an atomic bomb explodes. To increase their chance of fissioning U-235 (rather than being captured without fission by U-238), the neutrons are slowed down using a moderator such as graphite. So much energy is released as the fuel is fissioned that a single ton of uranium is equivalent to 25 000 tons of coal.
The vessel in which the fuel rods are placed is filled with a coolant. As nuclei split, energetic fragments fly off and are brought to rest in the surrounding coolant, so causing its temperature to rise. The coolant is constantly circulated through the core, so preventing the core from overheating and at the same time acting as the medium by which heat is channeled away from the core to raise steam. The nuclear reaction can be slowed down or stopped altogether if control rods containing a material that absorbs neutrons, such as boron, are lowered into the reactor core.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
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Pressurized-water reactor (PWR)
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Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 4)
ftsTitle
The advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR). In an AGR, the heat exchangers are located within the pressure vessel itself. The carbon-dioxide coolant is pressurized and heated up to 600 C (1112 F) or more as it is pumped through the core, which is made up of fuel rods filled with enriched uranium dioxide.
Energy (4 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Types of nuclear reactor
The first commercial nuclear power station, opened in 1956 at Calder Hall in Cumbria, England, was a magnox reactor. Magnox reactors are so called because their fuel - natural (unenriched) uranium - is clad in an alloy of magnesium and aluminum called magnox. They are cooled by carbon dioxide gas. In the 1970s a new generation of much bigger gas-cooled reactors was developed in Britain - the advanced gas-cooled reactors or AGRs. Meanwhile, the Canadians have developed reactors that use 'heavy water' (deuterium oxide). Because heavy water (unlike ordinary water) absorbs few neutrons itself, reactors using it as moderator and coolant can operate with unenriched (and thus cheaper) fuel. The economy in fuel costs is offset, however, by the additional expenditure involved in producing heavy water.
Today, the most widespread nuclear power plants are light-water reactors. The coolant and moderator - ordinary ('light') water - is readily available and cheap, but the uranium fuel has to be highly enriched. In the case of boiling-water reactors (BWRs), the water is allowed to boil to make steam, which is less efficient at cooling and moderating the reactor, and so must be prevented from building up in the reactor core. In pressurized-water reactors or PWRs, the water must remain at even higher pressure than is required in a BWR, so that it can reach useful temperatures without boiling.
The world's reserves of uranium will not last for ever, but one sort of reactor could make them go a lot further - the fast breeder reactor or FBR. The drawback of fast reactors is that they require the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel both to extract plutonium (its main fuel) in the first place and to recover it from the uranium blanket. Reprocessing is a highly complex and expensive operation - as well as being unpopular with environmentalists. Nevertheless - and in spite of funds for FBR programs generally being cut back - prototypes exist, including one at Dounreay in northern Scotland, a large one on the River Rhone in France and one in India.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
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Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 5)
ftsTitle
The fast breeder reactor (FBR). In an FBR, the neutrons released from the highly enriched fuel (uranium-235 and plutonium) convert a surrounding blanket of uranium-238 into more plutonium - the reactor 'breeds' plutonium. The reactor is 'fast' because no moderator is used to slow down the neutrons in the core. The coolant is liquid sodium, which is efficient at conducting heat away from the compact core and capable of dealing with the high temperatures involved. The coolant flow is isolated from the steam generator by a second, entirely independent sodium flow.
Energy (5 of 6)
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Nuclear safety
In April 1986 a nuclear power plant at Chernobyl in the Soviet Union suffered the world's worst nuclear accident. The reactor - a design of BWR peculiar to the USSR - was operated in such a way that water was allowed to boil to steam inside the reactor. This led to a reduction in cooling and a build-up of pressure. Finally steam reacted with the graphite moderator in the reactor core, producing hydrogen, which exploded. Thirty-three people died of radiation sickness as a direct consequence, but many more throughout northern Europe may ultimately suffer cancer as a result of exposure to the radioactive cloud that escaped.
As a result of Chernobyl and another costly, though less serious, accident at a PWR on Three Mile Island in the USA, many countries have slowed or halted their nuclear programs. Italy stopped building nuclear reactors just as the first one was being completed, and Sweden has decided to abandon its extensive nuclear program. France and the USSR, however, continue to build new nuclear plants, and Britain has decided to go ahead with a PWR at Sizewell in Suffolk. More are planned, but all arouse intense public debate.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
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The fast breeder reactor (FBR)
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p304-6
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 1: Coal, Oil and Nuclear (page 6)
ftsTitle
Three Mile Island nuclear power plant is an example of a pressurized-water reactor (PWR). Note that two of the coolant towers are inactive due to an accident that occurred there.
Energy (6 of 6)
1. Coal, Oil and Nuclear
Nuclear fusion
The ultimate dream of the nuclear industry is not to split big nuclei as at present, but to combine small ones - to exploit nuclear fusion rather than nuclear fission. In principle nuclear fusion sounds the perfect answer. The fuel required - deuterium and tritium, isotopes of hydrogen - can be produced relatively simply and in almost unlimited quantities. Although parts of the reactor will be made radioactive by energetic neutrons, there is no radioactive waste from the fuel itself.
There is a problem, however: to produce a continuous fusion reaction would effectively involve mimicking conditions in the core of the Sun or in a hydrogen bomb explosion. The hydrogen isotopes must be heated to extremely high temperatures - to such an extent that electrons are stripped off their nuclei, and the nuclei collide at such high energy levels that they fuse to form helium, releasing energy in the process. Temperatures of hundreds of millions of degrees will probably be required, so that the materials involved will have to be contained by laser beams or strong magnetic fields. Technologies have been stretched to the limits to make experimental reactors at centers around the world. It is unlikely, however, that power from nuclear fusion will become a commercial reality until the middle of the 21st century.
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* ENERGY 2
* OIL AND GAS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
Picture
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Three Mile Island nuclear power plant
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p306-1
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 2: Other Sources (page 1)
ftsTitle
Wind power technology has progressed from grinding corn to producing electricity. Several large wind farms have been built in the USA and Europe, principally at windy coastal sites.
Energy (1 of 5)
2. Other Sources
Even the biggest man-made power stations are dwarfed by the Earth's principal source of energy - the Sun. Directly or indirectly, it provides nearly all the energy we need, for the Sun warms the planet and ultimately drives the wind and waves. Even the chemical energy of the world's reserves of coal, oil and gas came originally from plants and algae, which themselves derived their energy from sunlight.
The Earth intercepts hundreds of billions of megawatts of power from the Sun. Although most of this is radiated back into space and is not available for use, the amount of solar energy that is absorbed by the Earth in a single year is still far greater than the energy that could be derived from the world's entire recoverable reserves of fossil fuels. If we made full use of just a tiny fraction of this solar energy, we would satisfy our present needs. The Sun will continue to shine for billions of years, so the energy forms derived from it on a daily basis are called renewable sources.
Biomass
On a global scale, biomass - vegetable matter used as a source of energy - meets a significant proportion of our energy needs. In Ethiopia, Tanzania and Nepal, for instance, it accounts for over 90%. In most other developing countries, wood, crop residues and animal dung provide over 40% of the fuel burnt. Such fuel is the only source of energy for cooking and heating for some 2000 million people.
In many developing countries, the wood used as fuel comes mainly from unmanaged forestry, in which trees are felled but not replanted. There are developments under way, however, that will make both the production and the combustion of biomass more efficient. Crop residues, such as straw, which were once left to rot or burnt on the fields, can now form the fuel for compact boilers used to heat farms or factories, to generate power, or to fuel industrial processes. Farmers, particularly in the Third World, are beginning to plant fast-growing tree species in forests or between rows of crops to provide a regular supply of firewood.
Many tractors in Africa are being converted to run on sunflower oil instead of diesel. Crops rich in starch and sugar can be fermented to produce alcohol, which is added to petrol in many countries, notably Brazil, to form what is known as 'gasohol'.
Rubbish
Domestic and commercial waste is expensive to dispose of in dumps, yet it could form a valuable fuel. A dry weight of 100 million tons of rubbish - perhaps a tenth of the total collected in the USA each year - could replace about 15 million tons of coal. In Sweden, there is already a scheme in operation known as 'district heating'. Twenty-three refuse incinerators burn roughly half the country's domestic refuse, and the energy produced - rather than being used to generate electricity - is used to heat nearby homes and offices.
Where waste is dumped into the ground, it can still yield useful energy. As rubbish decomposes, it produces methane (the principal component of natural gas). More than 30 large sites in the USA already extract gas from buried refuse dumps, and the technology is being introduced elsewhere.
Even sewage can be used as a source of energy. Millions of rural homes in the developing world have biogas plants. At their simplest, these consist of cement-lined tanks buried in the ground, which receive human waste or animal manure. Bacterial action produces methane, or 'biogas'. An estimated 20 million people in China use it for cooking and heating.
Direct solar energy is one of the simplest sources of power. Building designs, old and new, take advantage of it for heating and lighting. Today, more active designs are becoming widespread. Each square meter (11 3/4 sq ft) of a solar collector in northern Europe receives roughly 1000 kilowatt-hours of solar energy in the course of a year, and can use about half of this energy to heat water. A similar collector in California receives twice as much energy as this.
Solar (or 'photovoltaic') cells, which use the Sun's radiation to generate electrical energy, are also becoming cheaper and more efficient. Earlier cells, made from large slices of crystalline silicon, were very expensive, but new materials, such as amorphous silicon and gallium arsenide, are bringing the price down towards the goal of about one dollar per watt. The latest experimental solar cells are able to convert about a third of the energy in sunlight into electricity. Solar cells are already proving the best option for producing electricity reliably in remote locations.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
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p306-3
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 2: Other Sources (page 3)
ftsTitle
In a typical hydroelectric power plant, a river is dammed to create a reservoir that can provide a steady and controllable supply of running water. Water from the reservoir is channeled downstream to the power plant, where it causes a turbine to rotate, which in turn drives an electric generator. The electricity generated is then stepped up by transformers at a substation to the high voltages suitable for transmission.
In areas where there are considerable fluctuations in electricity demand, pumped-storage plants may be installed. The surplus power available at off-peak periods is used to pump water to a separate reservoir. At peak times, the stored water is released to generate extra electrical power.
Energy (3 of 5)
2. Other Sources
The traditional windmill has tapped the energy of the winds for centuries. Its modern counterpart is far more sophisticated. The biggest ones have blades resembling giant aircraft propellers up to 60 m (200 ft) across, and can generate 3 MW of electricity. Two such machines provide much of the electricity for the Orkney Islands, and several large 'wind farms' have been built at coastal sites both in Europe and in the USA. Another approach, pioneered in Britain, is a wind turbine with blades like a giant letter H, which rotate around a vertical axis. The mechanism tilts the blade tips inwards in high winds, thus regulating the supply.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
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Hydroelectric power plant
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p306-4
ftsTitleOverride
Energy 2: Other Sources (page 4)
ftsTitle
The tidal power station at La Rance in Brittany, France, opened in 1966, consists of a barrage blocking the 750 m (2460 ft) wide estuary of the River Rance. The tidal waters are channeled through 24 tunnels in the barrage (seen in cross-section below). Each tunnel houses a reversible turbine generator that can operate efficiently both on the flood tide (when the water flow is from sea to basin) and on the ebb tide (from basin to sea). At high tide, the sluices are closed, trapping the water in the tidal basin. The water can then be released to turn the turbines when the tide is low but when demand for power is high. Each of the 24 turbines can generate up to 10 MW -the total output of the plant being sufficient to satisfy the needs of around a million consumers.
Energy (4 of 5)
2. Other Sources
Water power
The average power in waves washing the North Atlantic coast of Europe is 50 kW per meter of wave front. Many ingenious techniques have been devised to harness this power, ranging from systems of rafts or floats known as 'ducks', rings of air bags known as 'clams', or columns in which water is forced up and down. Much effort has gone into the development of such techniques, but it has proved difficult to design structures capable of withstanding the force of the waves with- out excessive maintenance. It has become clear that wave power will not easily produce the hoped-for quantities of cheap energy.
The power of running water has long been exploited by water mills - one of the most ancient means of harnessing the power of the elements. In some countries, hydroelectric power, or 'hydropower', is the most important source of energy. Hydropower provides 8% of Western Europe's energy, and worldwide it provides roughly as much energy as nuclear power. Major projects can be controversial as they may involve flooding environmentally sensitive areas. However, the latest design of low-head water turbines has reduced the necessary height difference (the 'head') between the turbine and the surface of the reservoir, so making it possible to build smaller barrages or even to place turbines directly into river beds.
Tidal movements - ultimately derived from the Earth's rotation - are potentially a vast source of energy. Where tidal currents are funneled into river estuaries, there is an opportunity to harness this energy. There are currently six tidal power stations in the world, the biggest of them at the Rance Estuary in Brittany, France. Proposed tidal power schemes across the Severn Estuary in Britain and the Bay of Fundy in Canada would be much bigger.
Geothermal power
Just 30 km (19 mi) beneath our feet, the rock has a temperature of around 900 degC (1650 degF). This heat comes primarily from the gradual radioactive decay of elements within the Earth. Strictly speaking, this source of power is not renewable, but it is immense. There is enough heat in the top 10 km (6 mi) of the Earth's crust, at depths accessible with current drilling techniques, to supply all our energy needs for hundreds of years.
In some parts of the world, including Iceland, the amount of geothermal heat reaching the surface is distinctly greater than elsewhere, and can be used directly as a means of domestic heating. In other countries, blocks of flats are heated by hot water from wells 2 to 3 km (1 to 2 mi) deep.
The biggest reserves of geothermal heat, however, are to be found deeper still, at 6 km (4 mi) or so. As the rocks at this depth are dry, it is harder and more costly to get the heat out, because it is necessary to pump down water in order to bring the heat up. In an experimental project in Cornwall, England, three boreholes drilled to a depth of 2 km (1 1/4 mi) have been interconnected with a system of cracks, allowing water to be pumped from one borehole to another. There are plans to drill holes to three times this depth, but even at current depths the water returns to the surface hot enough to produce steam to drive turbines. Some estimates suggest that in Cornwall and other areas where the rocks are hotter at shallower depths, schemes of this kind could ultimately yield energy for Britain equivalent to 10 billion tons of coal.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
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p306-5
World Energy. By their nature, all renewable sources of energy are virtually impossible to quantify. However, the diagram gives a fair indication of how the world derived its energy in 1988 - as well as showing the continuing dominance of traditional fossil fuels.
Energy (5 of 5)
2. Other Sources
Energy in the future
No single form of renewable energy is likely to be as dominant in the future as oil and coal have been in the past. Taken together, however, such sources could answer most of the world's needs, replacing fossil fuels as they run out or become environmentally unacceptable. If fuel-saving measures such as improved insulation and waste-heat recovery are also widely implemented, it may be that our energy needs will fall even as our prosperity grows.
* THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* THE OCEANS
* FORESTRY
* ENERGY 1
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Energy 2: Other Sources (page 5)
ftsTitle
p308-1
The Double-Acting Steam Engine
The principal component of a typical Watt double-acting steam engine, as built c. 1790. Steam from a boiler was introduced alternately on either side of the piston, so that the engine was
double-acting
- both the upstroke and the downstroke were powered by steam. After passing through the cylinder, the steam was condensed to water, which was extracted by means of an air pump. As the steam condensed, a partial vacuum was created in the part of the cylinder into which the piston was moving. Thus - although the steam pressure in Watt's engine did not exceed 1_ atmospheres - the relative pressure difference within the cylinder increased the effective power of the engine.
Engines (1 of 5)
The tempo of human life, the jobs we do, and the structure of society itself were all transformed by the invention of heat engines - engines that use energy provided by heat to do work. The steam engine, invented in the 18th century, greatly extended mass production in factories, as well as providing power for railways and ships. The internal-combustion engine, invented at the end of the 19th century, greatly increased personal mobility through the motorcar. And the jet engine, the 20th century's contribution, has made travel to the ends of the Earth an everyday occurrence. Before the invention of heat engines, man depended on animals to draw the plow and provide transport, and on waterwheels and windmills to supply power for industry. But even the biggest mills generated no more than 10 horsepower - about 7 kilowatts.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Engines (page 1)
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Engines (page 2)
ftsTitle
Charles Parsons's Turbinia. Parsons's triumphant demonstration of the steam turbine in 1897 revolutionized marine propulsion. The turbine rapidly supplanted the reciprocating steam engine in naval craft and other ships.
Engines (2 of 5)
The power of steam
The first engines to use steam were pumps used to lift water from mines, developed in England in 1698 by a military engineer, Captain Thomas Savery (c. 1650-1715), and improved in 1712 by a Devon blacksmith, Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729). In Newcomen's atmospheric engines, steam from a boiler was admitted to the lower part of a cylinder, so driving a tightly fitting piston upwards. The steam was then condensed (turned back into water) by cooling the cylinder itself, thus creating a partial vacuum and allowing atmospheric pressure to force the piston down in the power stroke. The piston was attached to a beam pivoted in the center, the other end of which was connected to the pumping rod.
The most significant improvements to the design of steam engines were made in the second half of the 18th century by the Scottish inventor James Watt (1736-1819). Watt's first and most important step was taken in 1769, with the introduction into Newcomen's basic design of a condenser separate from the cylinder. This meant that the cylinder did not need to be alternately heated and cooled; the result was a dramatic reduction in fuel consumption and thus in operating costs.
In 1781 Watt's invention of the so-called 'sun-and-planet' gear allowed the reciprocating (up-and-down) motion of the cross-beam to be used to drive a wheel. In the following year, Watt improved the design of his engine still further by making it double-acting.
Steam engines were applied first in industry - mining, manufacturing and textiles - and then in transport. By the early 19th century, the first commercially successful steamboats, the Charlotte Dundas and the larger Clermont, were operating in Scotland and New York State respectively. By this time Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), a Cornish engineer, had built steam engines operating at much higher pressures than Watt's. He installed one of his engines in a locomotive that could pull a load of 10 tons on a cast-iron tramway between Penydarran Ironworks and the Glamorganshire Canal in Wales, at a speed of 8 km/h (5 mph). The irresistible rise of steam had begun.
Today the only important form of steam power is the steam turbine. Instead of driving a piston (in a reciprocating motion) the steam in a turbine expands past a series of sets of blades mounted on a single axle, generating power without vibration. It was developed by Charles Parsons (1854-1931), an engineer from Newcastle, whose triumph came at the Naval Review at Spithead in 1897. His little yacht Turbinia wove its way in and out of the ponderous warships at the unprecedented speed of 34 knots or 63 km/h (39 mph).
Steam turbines found their ideal function in generating electricity. Fed by steam from coal, oil or nuclear boilers, and attached directly to alternators, huge steam turbines produce almost all the electricity we use.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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ftsTitleOverride
Engines (page 3)
ftsTitle
The Four-Stroke Engine
In the four-stroke (or Otto) cycle, the piston makes four movements in each power cycle. Most cars have at least four cylinders linked to the same crankshaft, both cylinders and crankshaft being set within a heavy cast-iron cylinder block. The crankshaft also drives the camshaft, which opens and closes the valves at the top of each cylinder in the correct sequence. The four cylinders fire in turn, usually in the order 1-3-4-2, so that there is a power stroke for every half-revolution of the crankshaft.
1. The induction stroke. The piston moves down as the crankshaft is turned (by the starter motor, in a car), causing a reduction in pressure inside the cylinder. The partial vacuum thus created draws petrol and air (mixed in the carburetor or by a fuel-injection system) through the open inlet valve into the cylinder.
2. The compression stroke. The fuel-air mixture is compressed as the piston ascends with both valves closed.
3. The power stroke. The mixture is ignited by the spark plug, timed to produce a brief spark at the top of the compression stroke. The piston is driven down as the burning fuel expands.
4. The exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve opens and the piston rises, expelling the burnt mixture from the cylinder to make room for fresh fuel on the next induction stroke.
Engines (3 of 5)
The power of steam
Petrol and gas engines
In steam engines the fuel is burnt outside the engine - they are external-combustion engines. But internal-combustion engines - in which the fuel is burnt inside the cylinder, expanding to drive the piston - have proved even more versatile. Their combination of lightness and power made possible the motorcar, the airplane, the tractor and the tank.
The first practical internal-combustion engine was built in 1860 by a Belgian inventor,
tienne Lenoir (1822-1900). It ran on coal gas, had a single cylinder, and consumed a lot of fuel. A much better engine was built in 1876 by the German engineer Nikolaus August Otto (1832-91), who re-invented the four-stroke principle (or Otto cycle) first put forward in 1862 but subsequently forgotten. The four-stroke engine has had a greater impact than any other type of engine, and is used to drive most of the cars on the road today.
The two-stroke engine is a simpler version of the four-stroke. It dispenses with valves and uses the rotation of the crankshaft inside a pressurized crankcase to force the fuel into the cylinder. It has essentially the same ignition system as the four-stroke, however, and it too is fueled by petrol and air (although it requires a proportion of oil in the fuel). Such engines still find uses, for instance in some motorbikes and in chainsaws.
Some engines dispense with spark plugs altogether, relying on the increase in temperature caused by the compression stroke to ignite the mixture. They are called compression-ignition engines, or diesel engines, after their inventor Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913), a German engineer. Air is fed into the cylinder, and compressed so that it reaches a temperature higher than the ignition temperature of the fuel. The fuel is then injected by a pump, and ignites. More economical than petrol engines, they are used in ships, trucks, taxis and increasingly in private cars.
Like the steam engine, the internal-combustion engine also has a turbine equivalent - the gas-turbine (or jet) engine. Very high speeds and temperatures are reached in the operation of such engines, making great demands on the materials used.
The first efficient gas turbines were installed at an oil refinery in the USA in 1936 by the Swiss firm Brown Boveri. In Britain Frank Whittle (1907- ) realized that the gas turbine could be used to power aircraft if the exhaust gases were forced through a nozzle to produce a powerful jet. The first aircraft powered by jet engines were flying by the end of World War II, and the jet has gone on to transform air travel.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Four-Stroke Engine usea
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ftsTitleOverride
Engines (page 4)
ftsTitle
The Jet Engine
The turbojet is the simplest form of gas-turbine (or jet) engine. Forward thrust is created by the rapid expulsion of high-pressure gases through the nozzle at the rear of the unit. The compressor turbine, initially set in motion by an electric motor, acts like a series of fans to compress air drawn in at the front of the engine. The hot compressed air passes into the combustion chambers, where it is mixed with fuel (kerosene) and ignited. Once ignited, the temperature within the engine - typically in excess of 450
C (840
F) - is sufficient to keep the fuel-air mixture burning. Before exiting through the tail nozzle, the exhaust gases pass through a second turbine, which itself drives the compressor turbine via the driveshaft.
The basic turbojet has been modified in several ways. In a turboprop engine, the driveshaft is used to rotate a conventional propeller mounted in front of the compressor. The turbofan engine, used to power the biggest aircraft, has a large fan in the air intake at the front of the engine. This fan takes in extra air, most of which is channeled around the combustion chambers and out through the tail nozzle, so increasing efficiency and reducing noise.
Engines (4 of 5)
The power of steam
Rocket engines
There is an easier way to produce a jet - by burning fuel in a container with a single nozzle through which the exhaust is driven. This is the principle of the rocket engine, first demonstrated as long ago as the year 1200 by Chinese and Mongolian soldiers. The first long-range rocket, the V-2, was developed by a team led by Wernher von Braun (1912-77) and used by the Germans to bombard London and Antwerp during 1944 and 1945.
Rocket fuels may be either solids that burn steadily rather than exploding, or liquids (such as liquid hydrogen and oxygen) that react with each other. Unlike jet engines, rockets need no external source of oxygen, so they can work in space.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Jet Engine#
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p308-5
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Engines (page 5)
ftsTitle
Engines (4 of 5)
The power of steam
Rocket engines
There is an easier way to produce a jet - by burning fuel in a container with a single nozzle through which the exhaust is driven. This is the principle of the rocket engine, first demonstrated as long ago as the year 1200 by Chinese and Mongolian soldiers. The first long-range rocket, the V-2, was developed by a team led by Wernher von Braun (1912-77) and used by the Germans to bombard London and Antwerp during 1944 and 1945.
Rocket fuels may be either solids that burn steadily rather than exploding, or liquids (such as liquid hydrogen and oxygen) that react with each other. Unlike jet engines, rockets need no external source of oxygen, so they can work in space.
Refrigeration
The operation of a domestic refrigerator is based on the fact that the working fluid - the refrigerant - becomes cooler as it expands and changes from liquid to vapor while circulating through pipes within the cold box. As is does so, it takes in heat from the warmer air within the fridge, so cooling the interior.
The refrigerant - now vapor - is withdrawn by a pump. The pump then compresses the refrigerant, so raising its temperature above that of the room and allowing it to transfer heat through a heat exchanger into the air outside the fridge. Becoming liquid again as it cools, the refrigerant is then ready to pass into the cold box to repeat the cycle.
This system - the vapor-compression cycle - is the basis of most domestic and industrial refrigeration. A commonly used refrigerant is the chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Freon-12. Otherwise inert and ideally suited for refrigeration and other uses, this and other CFCs react with the ozone and are responsible for depleting the ozone layer.
* SPACE EXPLORATION
* THERMODYNAMICS
* TRANSPORTATION
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Refrigeration
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ftsTitleOverride
Oil and Gas (page 1)
ftsTitle
A BP production platform in the North Sea. Offshore oil fields currently produce about a quarter of the world's oil. Although drilling at sea does not differ in principle from land drilling, great technological skill has been required to design platforms that are stable enough to allow drilling to take place and resilient enough to withstand the harsh conditions of wind and waves. Most rigs currently sit on the sea bed in shallow waters, but anchored floating rigs allow oil to be retrieved at depths of over 1000 m (3280 ft).
Oil and Gas (1 of 4)
For hundreds of millions of years before man first trod the Earth, plants and simple single-celled organisms had flourished. After they had died and decayed, they gradually formed deposits of coal, oil and natural gas - the fossil fuels upon which modern society largely relies. We live, quite literally, upon the reconstituted rubbish of the past.
Oil and natural gas are hydrocarbons - organic compounds built from just two elements, hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons range from light gases like methane (CH4) to heavy solids like asphalt. Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons - some light, some heavy - and is often found in conjunction with natural gas. Three types of rock are needed to form an oil reserve: the sedimentary rocks in which the hydrocarbons form; porous rocks that can store the oil and gas like a sponge; and an impervious layer of rock over the top, ideally in the form of a dome, to form a trap.
Finding oil
Three surveying techniques are used to pinpoint areas where oil and gas are likely to have formed. In gravimetric and magnetic surveys, small variations in the force of gravity or in the Earth's magnetic field give clues to the type of rock in an area. Seismic surveys use shock waves, usually created by detonating small explosions. These waves are reflected from the various layers of rock beneath the ground and measured at the surface. Computer analysis of the reflected waves enables a cross-section of the subterranean rocks to be drawn.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 2
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Modern drills work by rotary action. The rock is cut by the drill bit, which is attached to a drillstring made up of 9 m (30 ft) sections of steel piping. The top piece of the string - the kelly - is usually square - shaped, and fits into the rotary table, which is powered by a motor and causes the whole drillstring to rotate. In order to concentrate weight on the bit, an extra-heavy section of piping called the drill collar is fitted immediately above the bit. As the well gets deeper, fresh sections of pipe are added to the top of the drillstring.
The chips of fragmented rock are carried to the surface by pumping 'mud' (actually a mixture of water, clay and added minerals) through the hollow drillstring. The mud is force out through the bit and returns to the surface, where it is filtered before being recycled. The mud helps to keep the bit cool, and its weight prevents blowouts and gushers-uncontrollable escapes of oil and gas - if the drill should encounter a region of oil and gas under high pressure.
Drilling speeds vary with the type of rock, from 60 m (200 ft) an hour in soft shales to only 6 m (20 ft) a day in the hardest rock. When the bit is blunt, the whole drillstring must be removed section by section, and new bit fitted. The process of removal and reassembly can take as long as 10 hours if the well is deep.
Oil and Gas (2 of 4)
Drilling for oil
When a likely area has been identified, exploratory drilling begins. The first oil well was drilled in 1859 in the USA, at Titusville, western Pennsylvania, by Colonel Edwin Drake. He was attracted to the spot by a stream whose water was often contaminated by oil seeping to the surface. He found oil 21 m (69 ft) down, using a drill that pounded away at the ground in an up-and-down motion. To day's drilling rigs work by rotary action and must drill much deeper to strike oil, often to depths of several kilometers.
If economic amounts of oil are found, production wells are drilled. From a single derrick, many holes can be drilled, fanning outwards to reach all corners of the reserve. This is done with a tool called the whipstock, which forces the flexible drillstring to bend slightly. A large field may be drilled from several different platforms. Each hole is lined with steel casing embedded in concrete, and explosives are used to punch holes through the casing, to allow the oil to get into the hollow casing from the surrounding rock.
Once the well has been drilled, an arrangement of pipework and valves - called a 'christmas tree' because of its shape - is installed at the surface to control the flow. The pressure of the oil may be enough to drive it to the surface, but pumps can also be used. As pressure falls, it may be artificially increased by pumping water down other holes. Even with such techniques no more than 30 to 40% of the oil in place can be recovered.
Production and transportation
Oil is seldom found exactly where it is needed. In most cases, the biggest oil-producing countries - principally in the Middle East, Africa and Latin America - are not themselves major consumers, and are therefore able to export much or most of the oil they produce. Russia and the USA also possess large oil reserves, but both are major consumers as well, the latter being by far the greatest single consumer. At the other extreme, Japan - another big consumer - has virtually no reserves of its own. This geographical imbalance between production and consumption has meant that the transportation of oil has become a vast business in itself.
The easiest way to transport oil overland is through pipes. Pipelines are made up of welded steel sections, and may be up to 1.2m (4 ft) in diameter. Pumping stations are installed at regular intervals to maintain pressure. For sea transport, huge tankers are used. Natural gas can also be carried in ships, if it is first liquefied by refrigeration.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 2
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In order to yield useful products, the various liquids and dissolved solids of which crude oil is composed must be separated. The principal method by which this is achieved is fractional distillation. Crude oil is heated in a furnace to around 350 C (660 F), and the oil vapors passed into the lower part of a fractionating column, a cylindrical tower about 50 m (165 ft) high, in which 30 or so perforated trays are placed at regular intervals.
As the vapors rise up the column, the temperature falls. Constituents (or fractions) of the oil with high boiling points, such as lubricating oils, condense lower down the column, while fractions that boil at lower temperatures, such as petrol, continue to rise until they reach a level cool enough for them to condense.
Modern distillation units generally have a capacity well in excess of 100 000 barrels a day. The barrel is the unit most commonly used in the oil industry and is equivalent to 160 litters (42 US gallons, or 35 imperial. gallons.)
Oil and Gas (3 of 4)
Drilling for oil
Oil refining
To turn crude oil into useful products it must be refined. Two basic processes are used. Fractional distillation allows lighter fractions to be separated from heavier ones. Catalytic cracking uses heat, pressure, and certain catalysts to convert or 'split' some of the heavier fractions obtained by distillation into lighter, more useful ones. Today the most valuable product is petrol (gasoline used to drive the world's cars, so a growing proportion of each barrel is converted into that.
Natural gas is often found together with oil, because it is formed in the same way and collects in the same kind of geological formations. The development of long-distance pipelines and ships that carry liquefied natural gas has greatly in creased the market for gas, which is both an excellent fuel and a useful raw material for the chemical industry. Gas flows more readily than crude oil, so as much as 80% of the gas in place may be recovered. The processing of gas involves separating it from any liquids and 'sweetening' it by removing gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. The end product consists mostly of me thane (more than 80%) combined with smaller amounts of ethane, propane and butane.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
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Oil and Gas (page 3)
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Oil and Gas (4 of 4)
Drilling for oil
A diminishing resource
How long will oil last? Although very large, supplies cannot be inexhaustible. The difficulty is that we cannot simply divide the world's known reserves by its annual production to work out how many years' supply is left. If we do that, the figure comes to no more than 20 years or so. In reality, however, as stocks diminish and prices rise, many new sources of oil are discovered, always keeping reserves ahead of production. While geologists accept that there must be a limit eventually, it remains a long way off. So far we have used no more than a quarter, and perhaps as little as a tenth, of all the oil that can be extracted.
OIL AND WORLD POLITICS
During the 19th century coal was the dominant fuel, but in the 20th century coal has been eclipsed by oil. Although renew able sources of energy are becoming increasingly significant, the dominance of fossil fuels in the global picture is still largely undiminished. Oil and natural gas meet about half the world's energy needs, while coal still accounts for more than a quarter. By contrast, nuclear power provides just 5% of global requirements. In addition, oil is the principal raw material from which plastics and polymers are produced. Without it, modern society could not long continue to flourish.
During the 1970s the producer nations, particularly in the Middle East, realized that their mineral wealth was being used up by the developed economies of the USA, Europe and Japan, and that the price these countries were paying did not reflect the true value of the product. The oil-producing nations therefore got together to form OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) - a cartel, or 'producers' club', intended to gain a greater share of the wealth derived from oil for those who were fortunate enough to have territory containing it.
In 1973 and again in 1979, OPEC was strong enough to enforce huge increases in the price of oil, placing a big burden on the world economy and sparking off worldwide inflation. The extra burden imposed by higher oil prices led to a slump in industrial output and world trade, and although the oil producers became rich, the fall in the value of the dollars they had earned eliminated much of the gain. Today the growth of oil production outside OPEC has reduced the organization's hold over the market, and oil prices have fallen back to values lower in real terms than they were before the second 'oil shock' of 1979.
* ENERGY
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 2
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Oil and Gas (page 4)
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p312-1
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Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 1)
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Opencast mining is now used to obtain the bulk of most minerals - although the environmental damage is severe. At Bingham Canyon near Salt Lake City in the USA, the scale of the operation is vast: 38 electric shovels, 62 locomotives, 1268 wagons and 28 tons of explosives are used to remove 96 000 tons of ore (containing only 1% copper) and 225 000 tons of waste every day.
Mining, Minerals and Metals (1 of 4)
The Earth's crust, a thin layer that accounts for only about 0.6% of the planet's total volume, provides the fuels, metals and minerals upon which developed societies depend. The quantities of most metals in the crust are small - only iron, aluminum and magnesium are really plentiful.
We are able to extract them only because they are not evenly distributed but occur in local concentrations where mining is economically possible. There are far greater concentrations of some metals, such as iron and nickel, in the Earth's mantle and core, but for the moment they are beyond our reach.
The first metals to be used by man were those that occurred in their natural state and appeared in outcrops on the surface - gold, silver, iron (in the form of fallen meteorites) and copper. However, supplies of elemental iron and copper soon ran out, and during the Bronze and Iron Ages it was discovered how to extract metals from their ores, in which they are chemically combined with other elements, most often oxygen or sulfur. A variety of techniques have been developed for finding and then recovering ores and other minerals.
1. A shaft mine is necessary to reach deep deposits.
The mineral is reached by a shaft descending vertically into the
ground.
2. A drift mine is used where a seam appears as an outcrop at the surface, usually on the side of a hill. The seam can be entered and mined directly.
3. A slope mine, used for deposits at moderate depths, enables the mineral to be hauled up an inclined tunnel in wagons.
4. An opencast mine is used where a mineral lies close to the surface. Layers of overlying soil and rock are removed to expose the mineral.
The mining method chosen to extract coal or other minerals depends principally on the depth of the seam or deposits. Opencast mines (also called open-pit or strip mines) are appropriate for deposits close to the surface. Various types of underground mine-drift, slope or shaft mines - are suitable for deeper deposits.
Mining, Minerals and Metals (2 of 4)
Mining methods
There are basically two kinds of mine - underground mines and opencast (or surface) mines. In an underground mine, horizontal tunnels several kilometers long are cut to get at a seam containing the desired mineral. Various techniques are then used to remove the mined material from the seam. In room-and-pillar mining, a common technique in coal mines in the USA, the coal is broken up by means of explosives and drills, and then removed to form large underground caverns, with the roof supported by pillars of unmined material. Longwall mining is more suitable for deeper deposits, such as those generally found in Europe. A working face of 100 m (320 ft) or more is cut by huge machines, and the coal is transported back along roadways by automatic conveyors. Powered roof supports are used to prevent falls of rock at the working face. Some deep mines are very deep indeed: gold is mined in South Africa at depths of more than 3500 m (11 500 ft), where the temperature of the rock may reach 49 degC (120 degF).
In opencast mining, the desired material is first exposed by removing any overlying material (the overburden) by means of scrapers, excavators, or draglines (huge buckets pulled along by steel cables). Relatively soft materials, such as coal, may then be removed by draglines, while for harder minerals the rock must first be broken up by blasting. In deep surface mines, such as the copper mines of Chile and Bingham Canyon in the USA, the ore is dug out in a series of terraces, or 'benches', that gradually expand and enlarge the pit. Roadways spiraling to the surface are provided for trucks to carry away the ore.
Alluvial mining, often used to recover tin and gold, makes use of the erosion of ores by water. Carried down by the flow of water, the ores (or native metal in the case of gold) can be recovered from the bottom of lakes and rivers by dredging or suction. The most primitive version of this is the panning technique used by gold prospectors. In Malaysia, huge dredges are used to pick up the tin-bearing gravels from the bottom of lakes. An unusual method is used for mining sulfur, an element vital to the chemical industry. Developed by the American engineer Herman Frasch (1851-1914) at the end of the 19th century, the system uses three tubes of different diameters, one inside another, that are drilled down into reserves of naturally occurring sulfur. Water under pressure and at a temperature of 160 degC (320 degF) is pumped down the outer pipe, melting the sulfur. Compressed air is then pumped down the center tube, driving the molten sulfur up through the middle tube. Sulfur obtained in this way is 99% pure. Today a considerable proportion of the world's sulfur is produced as a by-product of the purification of natural gas.
Common salt (sodium chloride) is found as salt deposits and in sea water. The salt deposits can be mined, while salt is recovered from sea water by evaporation in shallow pools. Magnesium chloride is also found in sea water in small but consistent amounts, and is extracted by reacting the sea water with lime, causing the magnesium to be deposited as a precipitate.
* ELEMENTS
* THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* ENERGY 1
* OIL AND GAS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 2)
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Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 3)
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Longwall mining is more expensive than opencast methods but is more suitable for deeper deposits, such as those commonly found in Europe. Huge cutting machines pass along the face of the seam, shearing off a thickness of up to 1 m (3 1/4 ft) of material at a time.
Mining, Minerals and Metals (3 of 4)
Discovering minerals
Fortunately for mankind, metals and minerals occur unevenly. Copper, tin, nickel, zinc, lead, mercury, silver and gold - all vital to our industrial society - are in fact extremely rare. Copper makes up only 100 parts per million of the Earth's crust, and lead only 20 parts per million. But the availability of metals does not depend so much on their abundance as on how easy it is to find and exploit their ores.
Sometimes bodies of ore advertise their presence by appearing at the surface, perhaps where erosion has scoured the rocks on a cliff face. Hidden reserves can be found by magnetic or gravimetric surveys - a mountain rich in iron ore will affect the Earth's magnetic field and the force of gravity in the immediate vicinity. Seismic and satellite surveying and knowledge of the local geology may also indicate the likelihood of a particular ore occurring.
The mere presence of an ore - even a valuable one - is no guarantee that it can be exploited economically. If such a deposit is too far from its final market, it may not be able to compete with poorer ores that are more favorably placed. In Brazil there are huge iron-ore reserves, amounting to some 50 000 million tons, but because of their remoteness they have only begun to be used since the early 1970s.
Will minerals run out?
As the poorer nations of the world strive to catch up with the rest, the consumption of all metals and minerals is rising fast. Will there be enough to go round? A number of studies carried out since the early 1960s have cast doubt on this. While iron and aluminum are abundant, there are many important metals - lead, zinc, tin, silver, platinum and mercury - the supplies of which seem less certain. In many cases, as one metal becomes scarcer, it can be replaced with another, or with a plastic or composite material, but this is not always possible. For instance, there is as yet no substitute for silver in photographic emulsions or for platinum as an industrial catalyst.
At the same time it is important to remember that in mining we have only begun - quite literally - to scratch the surface. While many of the richest sources of metals have already been exhausted, higher prices and better technology make it feasible to extract metals economically from poorer ores and to tap less accessible deposits. Few mining engineers or geologists believe that there is any real danger of running out of important minerals in the immediate future.
* ELEMENTS
* THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* ENERGY 1
* OIL AND GAS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Mining, Minerals and Metals (page 4)
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Mining, Minerals and Metals (4 of 4)
Hundreds of stones are mined as gems. The most important is diamond (a form of carbon) because its great hardness makes it important for tools in industry. The major source of diamonds is South Africa, where they are recovered from rock by deep mining. Where gemstones have been eroded from rocks by water, they may be found in gravel deposits. Sapphires and rubies, for instance, occur in such deposits in Sri Lanka.
METALS
Element Abundance Major uses
(mineral) in crust
(parts per
million)
Aluminum 81 000 Conductors, aircraft,
(bauxite) ships, cars, foil
Chromium under Chromium-plating,
(chromite) 700 stainless steel
Copper 100 Conductors,
(many) alloys (brass, bronze),
coinage, plumbing
Gold under Source of value,
(naturally 0.005 jewelry, some
occurring) electronic uses
Iron 50 000 Structures, machines
Lead 20 Batteries, roofing,
(galena) radiological protection
Magnesium 25 000 Low-density alloys
(magnesite, for aircraft,
etc.) machinery, etc.
Mercury under Explosives, scientific
(cinnabar) 1 instruments, dentistry
Nickel under Nickel-plating, steel
(garnierite, 80 alloys, gas-turbine
pentlandite) engines, coinage
Platinum under Catalyst in chemical
(naturally 0.005 processes and in car
occurring, exhausts
sperrylite)
Silver under Jewelry, silverware,
(many) 1 photographic emulsions
Tin 1.5 Tin-plating, alloys
(cassiterite) (bronze and pewter)
Tungsten 1.5 Lamp filaments,
(wolframite, electronics, steel
scheelite) alloys, cutting tools
Uranium under Nuclear power
(pitchblende) 7 stations
Zinc under Alloys (brass),
(sphalerite) 80 galvanizing steel
Coal is a carbon-based mineral that formed over many millions of years as a result of the gradual compacting of partially decomposed plant matter. Three basic types of coal are found: lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite. Lignite (brown coal) has the lowest heat value, since it was formed more recently and contains less carbon and more water than the other varieties. About half the coal mined is used for generating electricity, with another quarter going to the steel industry as coking coal. The remainder is used in other industries or for home heating. In the past, coal was the chief raw material for the plastics industry, but in this function it has been largely superseded by crude oil.
* ELEMENTS
* THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE
* THE FORMATION OF ROCKS
* ENERGY 1
* OIL AND GAS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Iron and Steel (page 1)
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Electric-arc furnaces take a charge consisting entirely of cold scrap - hot metal is not used. Because very precise control of the composition of the final product is possible, such furnaces are generally used to make the more expensive steels, including alloy and stainless steels. Modern arc furnaces produce up to 150 tons of steel in less than 1 1/2 hours.
Iron and Steel (1 of 5)
The Iron Age began in the Near East in the 2nd millennium BC, and we still live in it today. Iron and steel account for almost 95% of the total tonnage of all metal production. Ships and trains, cars and trucks, bridges and buildings - all these and thousands of things besides depend on the strength, flexibility and toughness of steel.
Iron is extracted industrially from naturally occurring ores. The two most important of these are iron oxides - hematite (Fe 2O3) and magnetite (Fe 3O4). Mixed with carbon and heated to 1500 degC(2730 degF), iron oxides are reduced to metallic iron, the carbon combining with the oxygen to form carbon dioxide. This process is called smelting. In the Middle Ages charcoal was used to provide the carbon, but in 1709 Abraham Darby (1677-1717) of Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, England, succeeded in smelting iron with coke, which could readily be produced from coal. This made possible a huge increase in iron production during the Industrial Revolution. The first link in the production of iron is the blast furnace, in which iron ore is reduced to iron. The biggest modern blast furnaces are huge constructions up to 30 m (100 ft) tall, with walls more than 3 m (10 ft) thick, and capable of making more than 10 000 tons of iron a day. The iron produced in the blast furnace is still contaminated with some residual impurities. Depending on the ore, it usually contains some 3 to 5% carbon, 1% manganese and 3% silicon.
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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p314-3
A mixture of fused ore and coke (known as sinter) and limestone is poured into the top on the furnace, while a blast of hot dry air is blown through the mixture from below. The coke burns at a high temperature and reacts with the oxygen in the air to produce carbon monoxide. This reduces the ore to liquid iron, which flows down to the bottom of the furnace. The limestone reacts with impurities in the ore - principally silicon form sand, clay and stones - and prevents them from contaminating the iron. Instead the silica and limestone form a slag, which is lighter than molten iron and floats on the surface.
From time to time liquid iron (known as 'hot metal') is tapped off from a hole at the bottom, gushing out as a white hot stream. The slag is drained off at regular intervals from another hole higher up. The iron-making process is continuous and may carry on without a break for 10 years or more, until the furnace's heat-resistant lining begins to deteriorate and has to be replaced.
Iron and Steel (3 of 5)
From iron to steel
The iron tapped from a blast furnace is a raw material, not a finished product. To be useful, it must be converted either into cast iron or into steel. Cast iron is produced by remelting pig iron (iron that has been cast into molds and allowed to cool) and carefully adjusting the proportions of carbon, silicon and other alloying elements. Strong and resistant to wear, cast iron can be machined and is easily cast into quite complex shapes. The molds into which it is cast are made of sand contained in molding boxes. The shape to be cast is impressed into the sand, and the molten iron poured into it. When solid, the casting is removed and the sand re-used to make a fresh mold.
The great bulk of the iron produced in a blast furnace is converted into steel, by greatly reducing the carbon content. A way of removing carbon economically from pig iron was discovered in 1857 by the English engineer Henry Bessemer (1813-98). In the Bessemer process, air blown through the molten iron combined with some of the carbon, carrying it away as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. It also oxidized some of the iron, which then combined with the silicon and manganese to form a slag. After just 15 minutes, several hundred tons of iron had been converted into steel. The entire converter rotated on an axle like a cement mixer to pour out the molten steel.
A much slower and more controllable process was invented in the 1860s by a number of engineers - the open-hearth process. In this process gas from low-grade coal was used to heat pig iron in a shallow furnace. The chemical changes were the same as in the Bessemer converter, but the process had the advantage that scrap steel could be added to the mixture. The process took up to 12 hours to produce steel, allowing very careful control of the final composition.
Today both the Bessemer and the open-hearth processes have been superseded in most countries by a process that combines the merits of both. In the L-D process (short for Linz-Donawitz), a jet of almost pure oxygen is blown through a lance onto the surface of molten iron. The process is quick and can absorb up to 20% scrap, while producing steel of very high quality. The addition of lime to the oxygen enables iron of higher phosphorus content to be converted, and in this form the process is known as the basic oxygen furnace.
For the more expensive steels, including alloy and stainless steels, electric-arc furnaces are used. Heat is provided by three carbon electrodes, which are lowered into a mixture of scrap and alloying additions. Silicon, manganese and phosphorus are removed as slag, and carbon is removed by adding some iron ore, which reacts just as in the blast furnace. The fact that an electric-arc furnace can melt a charge consisting entirely of scrap is a big advantage in developed countries where recycled steel makes up a large proportion of total production.
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Iron and Steel (page 3)
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Iron and Steel (page 4)
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Sheet steel from a rolling mill. Molten steel is often formed into a slab, which may then be rolled out into flat or coiled sheets. It may also be cut into smaller pieces and rolled out as wire, hollow tubes, bars or rails. Alternatively, more complex shapes, such as engine blocks, may be cast or forged directly from each slab.
Iron and Steel (4 of 5)
Types of steel
Steel is sold in the form of cast slabs, or rolled into plates, strips, rods (for nails, screws and wire) or beams (for buildings, bridges and other constructional uses). To make it suitable for a particular use, the characteristics of a steel can be altered by a number of processes, including heat treatment and alloying.
The most important factor in any steel is the carbon content. High-carbon steels are harder and stronger, but they are also more brittle and cannot be welded. For adequate weldability, carbon contents below 0.2% are needed. The precise characteristics of any steel also depend on heat treatment, which determines the microstructure of the steel. Steel can be hardened by heating it to red heat - around 850 degC (1560 degF) - and then quenching it in water, but such a steel is also brittle. The hardness can largely be retained and the brittleness reduced by a second heating to a lower temperature - to around 250 degC (480 degF). The steel is then allowed to cool in air. Such steel is said to be tempered.
Alloying steel with other elements in addition to carbon is also important. A steel containing 3% nickel, for example, is immensely tough, and is used for gears and shafts that have to take a lot of strain. Steels containing up to 13% manganese have very hard edges, and are used for items such as rock-breaking machinery. The metal molybdenum is added to alloy steels to reduce brittleness. Stainless steels, containing around 14% chromium and sometimes nickel as well, do not rust because of the formation of an impermeable oxide layer on their surface. Such steels are now widely used for cutlery, kitchen sinks and the cladding of buildings.
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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ftsTitleOverride
Iron and Steel (page 5)
ftsTitle
Iron and Steel (5 of 5)
SCRAP
The availability of recyclable scrap steel is an important factor in determining the most suitable kind of steel-making process. In a typical developed economy, there is so much scrap available that as much as half of any newly manufactured steel object may consist of recycled scrap: new cars have old cars driving around inside them. In developing economies, where there is less old steel around, a much lower proportion of scrap is used.
Not all scrap, however, comes from products that have reached the end of their life. A lot of scrap is produced in the steelworks itself, from material that is not up to the required standard, while off cuts from industry are returned to steel mills for reprocessing.
Type Carbon Typical
of steel content uses
(%)
Mild steel 0.08 Car bodies, tin cans
0.2 Buildings, bridges, ships
Medium- 0.25-0.45 Gun barrels,
carbon railway wheels
High- 0.45-1.5 Tools, scissors, cutlery
carbon
Cast iron 2.5-4.5 Machine tools,
engine blocks,
ironmongeryy
cutlery
Cast iron 2.5-4.5 Machine tools,
engine blocks,
ironmongery
Type Carbon Typical
of steel content uses
(%)
Mild steel 0.08 Car bodies, tin
cans
0.2 Buildings,
bridges, ships
Medium- 0.25-0.45 Gun barrels,
carbon railway wheels
High- 0.45-1.5 Tools, scissors,
carbon cutlery
Cast iron 2.5-4.5 Machine tools,
engine blocks,
ironmongery
* METALS
* MINING, MINERALS AND METALS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Rubber and Plastics (page 1)
ftsTitle
Rubber-tapping. Although millions of tons of natural rubber are produced annually, the substance from which it is made - latex - is still tapped from rubber trees in the traditional way. A diagonal cut is made into the bark of the tree a meter or so from the ground. A spout is then driven into the lower end of the cut, and a cup is attached to catch the latex as it flows out.
Rubber and Plastics (1 of 3)
The natural product of a tropical tree and the man-made creations of a chemical factory could hardly have more different origins. But rubber and plastics play similar and equally important roles in modern life.
Rubber was known to the Mayas and Aztecs in Pre-Columbian America. They heated the latex - a whitish milky fluid - that flowed from the bark of the rubber tree until it coagulated. From it they made balls with which they played games. The Spanish, who conquered most of South America, used rubber to waterproof soldiers' cloaks, but it was a Frenchman, Charles de la Condamine (1701-74), who first brought it back to Europe.
Vulcanization of rubber
Beyond its curiosity value, raw rubber had relatively few uses. It was given its name by the chemist Joseph Priestley (chiefly known as the discoverer of oxygen), who observed in 1770 how useful it was for rubbing out pencil marks. In 1823 the Scottish chemist Charles Macintosh (1766-1843) made his name immortal (though universally misspelled) by inventing the 'mackintosh' - a waterproof raincoat made from a fabric produced by sandwiching a layer of sheet rubber between two pieces of cloth.
It was a Philadelphia hardware merchant, Charles Goodyear (1800-60), who transformed the future of rubber. Looking for a way of preventing it going sticky when hot and hard when cold, he mixed it with sulfur and heated it. The result was a far more stable and useful product - tougher and more consistent in its properties, yet retaining all the resilience of untreated rubber. The name vulcanization was given to this process. Vulcanized rubber could be used for a whole new range of applications - conveyor belts, hoses, valves, insulation of electrical cables, and, on the horizon - the biggest use of all - pneumatic tires for road vehicles. By the end of the 19th century Michelin in France, Dunlop in England and Goodrich in the USA were all producing tires for the motorcar.
Rubber production
Although other plants have sometimes been used, most of the world's rubber originates in cultivated plantations of Hevea brasiliensis, a tree native to Brazil. Seeds from this tree were brought to England in 1876 and exported to parts of the British Empire where the climate was suitably tropical and humid. Today more than 4 million tons of rubber is produced annually, 90% of it from Southeast Asia, principally from Malaysia.
Latex is still tapped from rubber trees in the traditional manner. At the factory the latex is first caused to coagulate (usually by the addition of chemicals) and then masticated - kneaded and worked between steel rollers rotating in opposite directions - to break it down and make it flexible. Next, the rubber is mixed with various compounding agents to improve its performance. Carbon black may be added to reinforce the rubber, while antioxidants are incorporated to prolong its life. The color of the rubber may be altered by adding various pigments. The sulfur for vulcanizing is also added at this stage. The rubber is then shaped on a variety of machines into its final form, and only then is it vulcanized, usually by heating it in a metal mold. For tires, the final shaping and vulcanization are carried out at the same time, by applying heat and pressure in metal molds.
Rubber is used in a vast array of different products, from delicate surgical devices at one extreme to huge conveyor belts at the other. Artificial substitutes for rubber have been made, but for all but a few specialist purposes they are not as good as natural rubber.
* CHEMISTRY
* TEXTILES
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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Rubber and Plastics (page 2)
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Low-density polythene (or polyethylene) being formed into film by extrusion - ejection under pressure through a suitably shaped nozzle. This form of polythene is widely used for the manufacture of plastic bags and other kinds of packaging. High-density polythene, produced at lower pressures using special catalysts, is a more rigid product, and can be injection- or blow- molded into items such as plastic kitchenware, milk crates and large drums.
Rubber and Plastics (2 of 3)
The first plastics
Chemically, rubber is a polymer - a compound containing large molecules that are formed by the bonding of many smaller, simpler units, repeated over and over again. The same bonding principle - polymerization - underlies the creation of a huge range of plastics by the chemical industry.
The first plastic was developed as a result of a competition in the USA. In the 1860s $10 000 was offered to anybody who could replace ivory - supplies of which were declining - with something equally good as a material for making billiard balls. The prize was won by John Wesley Hyatt with a material called celluloid. Celluloid was made by dissolving cellulose, a carbohydrate obtained from plants, in a solution of camphor dissolved in ethanol. This new material rapidly found uses in the manufacture of products such as knife handles, detachable collars and cuffs, spectacle frames and photographic film. Without celluloid, the film industry could never have got off the ground at the end of the 19th century.
Celluloid can be repeatedly softened and reshaped by heat, and is known as a thermoplastic. In 1907 Leo Baekeland (1863-1944), a Belgian chemist working in the USA, invented a different kind of plastic, by causing phenol and formaldehyde to react together. Baekeland called it Bakelite, and it was the first of the thermosets - plastics that can be cast and molded while hot but cannot be softened by heat and reshaped once they have set. Bakelite was a good insulator, and was resistant to water, acids, and moderate heat. With these properties it was soon being used in the manufacture of switches, household items such as knife handles, and electrical components for cars.
Plastics proliferate
Chemists soon began looking for other small molecules that could be strung together to make polymers. In the 1930s British chemists discovered that the gas ethylene would polymerize under heat and pressure to form a thermoplastic they called polythene. Polypropylene followed in the 1950s. Both are used to make bottles, pipes and plastic bags. A small change in the starting material - replacing a hydrogen atom in ethylene with a chlorine atom - produced PVC (polyvinyl chloride), a hard, fireproof plastic suitable for drains and gutters. By adding certain chemicals, a soft form of PVC can be produced, suitable as a substitute for rubber in items such as waterproof clothing. A closely related plastic is Teflon or PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene). It has a very low coefficient of friction, making it ideal for bearings, rollers, and non-stick frying pans.
Polystyrene, developed during the 1930s in Germany, is a clear glass-like material, used in food containers, domestic appliances and toys. Expanded polystyrene - a white rigid foam - is widely used in packaging and insulation. Polyurethanes, also developed in Germany, found uses as adhesives, coatings, and - in the form of rigid foams - as insulation materials. All these plastics are produced from chemicals derived from crude oil, which contains exactly the same elements - carbon and hydrogen - as many plastics.
Large blocks of expanded polystyrene being used instead of normal fill in the construction of a trunk road. The adaptability of plastics has meant that they have been able to replace traditional materials in many areas: as well as offering economies in cost and time, plastic substitutes are often more suitable for a given purpose.
Rubber and Plastics (3 of 3)
Man-made fibers
In the 1930s the first of the man-made fibers was created - nylon. Its inventor was a chemist called Wallace Carothers (1896-1937), who worked for the Du Pont company in the USA. He found that under the right conditions two chemicals - hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid - would form a polymer that could be pumped out through holes and then stretched to form long glossy threads that could be woven like silk. Its first use was to make parachutes for the US armed forces in World War II. In the postwar years it completely replaced silk in the manufacture of stockings.
Many other synthetic fibers joined nylon, including Orlon, Acrilan, and Terylene. Today most garments are made of a blend of natural fibers, such as cotton and wool, and man-made fibers that make fabrics easier to look after.
Plastic waste
The great strength of plastic - its indestructibility - is also something of a drawback. Beaches all over the world, even on the remotest islands, are littered with plastic bottles that nothing can destroy. Nor is it very easy to recycle plastics, as different types of plastic are often used in the same items and call for different treatments.
Plastics can be made biodegradable by incorporating into their structure a material such as starch, which is attacked by bacteria and causes the plastic to fall apart. Other materials can be incorporated that gradually decay in sunlight - although bottles made of such materials have to be stored in the dark, to ensure they do not disintegrate before they have been used.
* CHEMISTRY
* TEXTILES
* CHEMICALS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
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Textiles (page 1)
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Raw cotton - one of the many natural fibers used in the production of textiles. Natural fibers, whether derived from plants or animals, are relatively short, and must first be spun into long strands (yarn) before being woven or knitted into fabric.
Textiles (1 of 4)
Mankind has always needed clothes, so the history of textiles is a long one. More than 3000 years before the birth of Christ, Egyptian mummies were laid in their tombs wrapped in linen, a fabric woven from flax. The Chinese were weaving delicate patterns in silk by about 1000 BC.
The creation of textiles requires two processes: the spinning of yarn, and the weaving of cloth. The basic principles of these two crafts have not changed since the earliest times, although the materials used have been supplemented in the 20th century by man-made fibers.
Natural fibers
Natural fibers come from a variety of sources: wool from sheep, cotton from the seed pod of the cotton plant, flax from the stem of the flax plant, silk from the delicate webs spun by silkworms fattened on the leaves of the mulberry tree. Among the more specialized fibers, the Angora goat produces mohair, while cashmere comes from the Kashmir goat. Camel hair and the fleece of the vicuna, a relative of the llama, are used in rugs and overcoats. Jute, a plant fiber, is used for making sacks and carpet backings, while hemp, another plant fiber, is used in sailcloth and canvas.
In their natural state, none of these fibers is very long. Wool fibers may be up to 20 cm (8 in) long, and flax a meter or more, but cotton fibers are rarely more than a few centimeters and are often as short as 3 mm ( 1/8 in). In order to make a continuous strand or yarn, the fibers have to be laid out in parallel lines and twisted together in the process called spinning.
In knitting, fabric is produced by knotting continuous yarns into a series of interlocking loops. Knitted fabrics are generally more stretchable than woven ones, and the range of patterns that can be produced is more limited. Here a worker is seen checking for a rough beam flange on a high-speed nylon knitting machine.
Textiles (2 of 4)
Spinning
Having first been cleaned, the fibers are carded (laid parallel) by rolling them between two surfaces faced with points. Then they are combed to remove short fibers, and rolled in machines that pull out the yarn and give it a twist, which helps to hold the fibers together. Stronger yarns are created by twisting two or more yarns together, and mixtures are made by combining fibers from different sources, such as wool and polyester. Finally the finished yarn is dyed and wound on bobbins (spools) for dispatch.
Spinning was originally done on a simple spindle - basically a hanging stick, weighted to make it spin round. A measure of mechanization was achieved by the spinning wheel, but it was not until the late 18th century that the process was industrialized. The spinning jenny, invented around 1764 by the Englishman James Hargreaves (c. 1719-78), allowed several strands to be spun simultaneously. Within a few years Richard Arkwright (1732-92) had brought mechanical power to spinning in the form of the water frame. Another British inventor, Samuel Crompton (1753-1827), combined the advantages of both earlier machines in his spinning mule of 1779, which increased the speed and improved the quality of yarn production. Continuous improvement in mechanization since the 18th century has led to modern machines that are capable of producing thousands of meters of yarn an hour.
Unlike natural fibers, man-made fibers like nylon are continuous. In principle, therefore, they can be used without spinning to make items such as net curtains, nylon stockings or tights. For more substantial garments, however, several filaments are wound together to make a thicker yarn. Synthetic fibers may also be cut into shorter lengths, and then blended with natural fibers and spun into a combination yarn.
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Although modern looms are fully automated and electrically driven, the basic weaving operations performed are the same in principle as in earlier looms.
Two separate yarns are used, the warp and the weft. The warp runs along the length of the cloth, while the weft runs crosswise, alternately under and over the warp threads. The warp is mounted on a roller as wide as the bolt (roll) of cloth will be, and each warp thread passes through an eyelet at the midpoint of a fine wire called a heddle, all the heddles being supported in frames called harnesses .
As the harnesses are raised and lowered, they separate the warp threads, allowing the weft to pass through the gap created. The weft is carried by a hollow boat-shaped object called the shuttle. After each pass, the weft is beaten down by a hinged, comb-like device called the reed, so that the most recent weft thread is pressed close to the previously woven cloth.
The weaving process can be elaborated almost infinitely, by varying the colors of the threads or by altering the pattern in which the yarns are interwoven.
Textiles (3 of 4)
Weaving
Two techniques are available for turning yarn into fabric: weaving and knitting. Traditionally knitting has been used for hosiery (including nylon stockings), for sweaters, and for women's dresses. Weaving is used to create bolts (rolls) of cloth, both for clothing and for furnishing fabrics.
Hand looms have been in use since ancient times, but it was not until 1785 that the British industrialist Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823) invented a power loom, in which the shuttle was moved across the warp mechanically. In 1801 the Frenchman Joseph-Marie Jacquard(1752-1834) mechanized the weaving of complex fabrics by controlling the loom with a series of punched cards that allowed warp threads to be lifted and lowered in the correct sequence. The punched cards were linked together as a sequence, and it took many thousands of them for the most elaborate fabrics.
The pattern of the weave can be altered to produce different effects. Satin gets its glossy appearance because the warp threads are interwoven not with every weft thread, but with every fourth or fifth. In damask, the same technique is used, but places where the warp lies on top are alternated with places where the weft does, producing subtle variations of shading. Twill weaves are used to produce gaberdine, serge and whipcord, and pile weaves for corduroy, plush, velour and velvet. The pile in such fabrics is created by cutting some of the threads after weaving, so that they stand out vertically from the surface of the fabric.
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Textiles (page 4)
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Textile printing provides an alternative to weaving as a means of producing patterns on fabric. Here a sheet of cloth is seen running through a color press, with large vats of dye standing in the foreground.
Textiles (4 of 4)
Printed patterns
Not all fabric patterns are produced by weaving. Color printing, using as many as 16 different colors, can also be used. This method originated in India, and the Hindi word 'tchint', meaning 'mottled', is believed to be the origin of chintz, the bright printed fabric widely used in furnishing.
Printing is done on a series of rollers, one for each color that is to be applied. Each roller, engraved with a part of the pattern, picks up dye from a trough as it rotates. The pattern is transferred to the fabric as it passes between the rollers, care being taken to ensure that the fabric cannot slip - otherwise the pattern would get out of register. After coming off the final roller at speeds of up to 180 m (590 ft) a minute, the fabric is dried in an oven.
Knitting
In knitting, the yarns are not interwoven with one another but knotted. The range of patterns is more limited, but with modern knitting machines far more ambitious designs can be achieved than had previously been possible. The use of modern combination fabrics in which wool is mixed with man-made fibers has also allowed garments to be knitted that are easier to look after and that keep their shape better.
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Unlike other manufacturing industries, where several raw materials are typically required to make a single product, the chemical industry derives thousands of useful products from a smaller number of raw materials.
For example, ethylene - a product of the refinement of crude oil - is used to form a few major chemicals, which in turn spawn hundreds of derivative products.
Chemicals and Biotechnology (1 of 3)
The chemical industry turns readily available raw materials into thousands of useful products. Principally from coal, oil, natural gas, air, water, limestone, salt and sulfur, the industry manufactures drugs, fertilizers and pesticides, soap and detergents, cosmetics, plastics, acids and alkalis, dyes, solvents, paints, explosives and gases.
Biotechnology also produces useful products, but by biological rather than chemical methods. Living organisms - or substances produced from them - are used to make drugs, to improve crops, to brew alcohols, and even to extract minerals. Some of its methods, such as fermentation, are ancient, while others are so new that they are barely out of the research laboratory.
The birth of the chemical industry
The first chemical to be produced on a large scale was soda (sodium carbonate), which was needed primarily in glass and soap manufacture. In 1787 the French chemist Nicolas Leblanc (?1742-1806) devised a method of mixing common salt (sodium chloride) with sulfuric acid to produce sodium sulfate, which was then mixed with coal and limestone and roasted. The resultant 'black ash' was dissolved in water and then evaporated to extract the soda. Subsequently the Leblanc process was replaced by a process using salt, carbon dioxide and ammonia. Soda is typical of most products manufactured by the chemical industry in that it requires further processing to make useful products.
Other important landmarks in the growth of the chemical industry were the production of bleaching powder (a bleaching agent and disinfectant) in 1799, and the invention of synthetic dyes, beginning with Perkin's mauve in 1856. The production of artificial fertilizers, which supply plants with nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, was also significant. The first of these was superphosphate, manufactured from 1834 onwards by mixing phosphates with sulfuric acid. The use of electrolysis to extract valuable chemicals by passing electrical currents through salt solutions began in 1894 with the Castner-Kellner process for making pure caustic soda.
* CHEMISTRY
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* OIL AND GAS
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* TEXTILES
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Chemicals and Biotechnology (page 2)
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Drugs from the pharmaceutical industry form a major part of the fine chemicals sector of the chemical industry. The acceleration of intensive research and development in biochemistry and pharmacology has led to a huge increase in the availability of powerful and useful drugs.
Chemicals and Biotechnology (2 of 3)
The chemical industry today
The modern chemical industry can be divided for convenience into three categories: the heavy inorganic sector, which includes fertilizers and other chemicals produced in large amounts; the fine chemicals sector, which includes drugs and dyes; and the heavy organic sector, which includes plastics, man-made fibers and paints. The term 'organic' was originally used to designate any chemical found in living organisms, but today the term refers to any chemical containing carbon. Because of the facility with which carbon atoms link to form molecules, the variety of such compounds is enormous - literally millions of carbon compounds can be synthesized.
In the heavy inorganic sector, sulfuric acid is by far the largest single product. Nearly half is used to produce superphosphate, with the rest going to a variety of chemical processes, including the production of explosives and artificial fibers. In 1908 the German chemist Fritz Haber (1868-1934) developed a catalytic method for combining the nitrogen in air with hydrogen to form ammonia, which is chiefly used in the manufacture of explosives and nitrate fertilizers.
In the fine chemicals sector, chemical substances are produced in much smaller quantities than is the case with (say) fertilizers, but higher prices are charged. Dyes are produced in a huge range of colors, originally from coal but now mostly from crude oil. Many drugs are also synthesized using the methods of organic chemistry, and some are produced biochemically.
In the heavy organic sector, materials are produced in large quantities, usually as raw materials for further processing into plastics, fibers, films or paints. Typical examples are benzene, phenol, toluene, vinyl chloride and ethylene. The raw material generally used is crude oil, which contains a range of hydrocarbons - chemicals made up of carbon and hydrogen. From crude oil individual hydrocarbons can be extracted by distillation or catalytic cracking. The hydrocarbons obtained in this way are then used to build more complex molecules by polymerization.
A vast range of pesticides is produced by the chemical industry. They are a crucial element in the battle against insects and other pests that cause economic damage to crops or that produce disease in humans and domestic animals.
Chemicals and Biotechnology (3 of 3)
Biotechnology
The technique of fermentation, in which microorganisms such as yeast convert raw materials into useful products, has been known since earliest times. By the middle of the 19th century, industrial alcohol was being produced by fermentation in much the same way as beer or wine. After the price of crude oil went up in the 1970s, alcohol produced in this way has been able to compete under some circumstances with petrol, and large fermentation plants have been built in the USA and Brazil to convert plant material such as maize into fuel.
A number of acids can also be produced by fermentation - vinegar (dilute acetic acid) being an important example. Citric acid, widely used in food and drinks, was originally produced from citrus fruits, but a fermentation process developed by the US Pfizer company in the 1920s soon dominated the market. Pfizer still produces half the 250 000 tons of citric acid used every year. Other chemicals that can be produced by fermentation include glycerol, acetone and propylene glycol.
Fermentation has proved equally useful in the drug industry. Following the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin in 1928, large-scale fermentation methods were developed in the 1940s to produce the drug commercially. Today a large number of drugs are produced in this way, as well as other biochemicals such as enzymes (biochemical catalysts), alkaloids, peptides and proteins.
The technique of genetic engineering has greatly increased the range of possible products. By altering the genetic blueprint of a microorganism, it can be made to produce a protein quite unlike anything it would produce naturally. For example, if the short length of the genetic material DNA responsible for producing growth hormones in humans is inserted into cells of a certain bacterium, the bacterium will produce the human hormone as it grows. It can then be extracted and used to treat children who would otherwise not grow properly. The same methods can be used to produce insulin for diabetics, while sheep have been genetically engineered so that they produce a human blood-clotting agent in their milk.
Environmental hazards
The damage done to the environment by the growth of the chemical industry is an issue of widespread concern. The first attempts at controlling pollution by legislation were made in the 19th century, and today the chemical industry throughout the world is heavily circumscribed by legislation. Such legislation is not always successful, however, since poisonous discharges into streams still continue, and there is little control of the dumping of toxic wastes.
A longer-term hazard is posed by the use of fertilizers. Although nitrates have contributed enormously to the production of food, they can pollute lakes and streams, and by percolating through the soil can reach groundwater. Controls on the use of such agricultural chemicals may soon be needed. There is also anxiety about the use of genetic engineering techniques. It is possible, for example, that an accident could produce super-resistant species of germs or pests.
* CHEMISTRY
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
* OIL AND GAS
* RUBBER AND PLASTICS
* TEXTILES
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p322-1
Picture
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ftsTitle
In letterpress printing, the image is transferred to paper by means of type that stands out in relief from the printing plate.
In lithography, the image is localized on a flat printing plate by means of chemicals that attract ink, while blank areas are covered by a film of water.
In photogravure, the image is etched into depressions on the printing plate. The plate is then inked, and the ink removed from blank (i.e. non-recessed) areas by means of a blade.
Printing (1 of 4)
Books spread knowledge and ideas, make universal education possible, and provide access to techniques invented by others. When the first printed books appeared in Europe in the 15th century, the progress of learning began to gather pace. The information revolution that still dominates our lives was under way.
By the end of the 2nd century AD the Chinese had invented paper, ink and a block with a picture or letters cut into it - the basic requirements for printing. The blocks were made of wood, and text was engraved on them by cutting around the characters so that they stood out in relief. By the 14th century, individual blocks had been carved for each of the 80 000 Chinese characters. They could be arranged in any order to make up a page - the principle of movable type.
Typesetting
The really decisive advances, however, were made in Europe in around 1450, by Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1398-1468) and Johann Fust (c. 1400-66). Both goldsmiths by trade, they used metal type - far longer lasting than wooden blocks - and a vice-like press to transfer the ink from the blocks to the paper. Each letter was separately cast, using a low melting-point alloy of lead, tin and antimony. The letters were then arranged side by side along a strip of wood called a stick to form words, and the lines were justified (made to fit a fixed width or measure) by inserting small pieces of lead between the words. By 1448 they had printed the Bible in Latin, each page taking a printer a day to set in type. A similar process to Gutenberg's was adopted by the Englishman William Caxton (c. 1422-91). He printed his first book - the first book printed in English - in 1475.
Printing using hot metal lasted more than 500 years. Its speed was improved by inventions such as the Linotype machine - produced in 1884 by Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854-99) in the USA - which could cast a whole line at once from individual letters typed by the operator on a keyboard. It was used mainly for newspapers. Its principal rival was the Monotype machine, invented in 1887 by Tolbert Lanston (1844-1913), also in the USA. The Monotype operator keyed in the text, which was coded into a punched tape, together with information about the spaces between words needed to justify the line. This information came at the end of each line, but the tape was fed to the typecaster backwards, so that the correct spacing was known before the line was cast. The Monotype machine produced high-quality results and was used for a wide range of printing jobs.
Today typesetting - as well as other stages in the production of printed material - has been almost entirely taken over by computers.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* COMPUTERS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* ART TECHNIQUES 2
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Printing (page 1)
p322-2
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Printing (page 2)
ftsTitle
Screening. In lithography and letterpress printing, it is impossible to produce gradations of tone by varying the thickness of ink deposited at different points of the printed image. Areas of different tone in an illustration are therefore reproduced by a process known as screening (also known as the halftone process). The image is photographed through a fine screen, so dividing the image into a series of evenly spaced dots; the size of the dots determines the density of the ink at a given point - the larger the dot, the darker the tone.
Printing (2 of 4)
Printing methods
Three methods of printing are of particular significance. In letterpress printing, the method used by Gutenberg, the raised surfaces of the typeset page are covered in ink by rollers, and paper is pressed against it in a press to transfer the image.
The principle of lithography (or 'litho'), which has now almost entirely taken over from letterpress, was invented in 1796 by a Bavarian, Aloys Senefelder (1771-1834). The technique depends on the fact that water and grease do not mix. The images to be printed are transferred to flexible metal plates photographically, in such a way that the areas to be printed consist of chemicals that attract ink and repel water, while the blank areas attract water and repel ink. First water and then ink is applied to the plate; all the ink congregates in the areas of the image, and can be transferred to paper in a rotary press. A better image is achieved if the cylinder carrying the plate first transfers the image to a rubber-coated cylinder, which in turn transfers it to paper. This rubber 'offset' cylinder gives the method its name - offset litho.
A third technique is widely used for printing color supplements and magazines. In gravure (short for 'rotogravure' or 'photogravure') the image is etched on the plate photographically, forming cells whose depth depends on the intensity of the color. As the plate rotates, it picks up ink, which is wiped off blank areas by a blade. When the paper passes between the cylinders of the press, the deeper cells produce denser images, while the shallower ones produce lighter ones. In a related process, known as copperplate gravure or line intaglio, the image consists of discrete lines that vary in depth and width. It is the preferred method for printing stamps and banknotes.
TEXT BOX
COLOR REPRODUCTION
To print in color, paper must pass successively over a number of printing cylinders, a different color being transferred to the paper at each stage. The process is made simpler by the fact that any color can be made by mixing three basic colors in the right proportions. Separate plates are made for printing in cyan (bluish green), magenta (purplish red) and yellow, and the images from each printing are superimposed exactly on top of one another. A fourth printing is then made in black, principally to add definition and contrast, as well as to print the text and captions for the color page.
The four printing plates necessary for full-color reproduction are prepared from four separate pieces of film, or separations, which - when placed one upon another - recreate the colors of the original illustration. The separation is achieved by means of a color scanner : a computer-guided laser beam moves back and forth across a rotating drum to which the original is attached, measuring the quality and intensity of each of the basic colors at every point of the image.
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* COMPUTERS
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* ART TECHNIQUES 2
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Printing (page 3)
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Web-fed rotary presses at the daily newspaper Izvestia in Moscow use a continuous roll of paper. Typesetters compose the pages and the printed paper is taken off a conveyor belt.
Printing (3 of 4)
Printing presses
Several designs of printing press have been developed over the centuries. Historically, the various kinds of press were all designed chiefly for the purposes of letterpress printing. The methods that have largely superseded letterpress - gravure and litho - are carried out almost exclusively on some variant of rotary press.
In platen presses, the type is carried in a flat bed and pressure is applied by the platen - a second flat surface, which is fed by sheets of paper. In flat-bed or cylinder presses, the type is carried in a mobile flat bed that moves back and forth beneath an impression cylinder, around which a sheet of paper is wrapped.
Greater printing speed, particularly important for newspaper production, was achieved by rotary presses, which operate cylinder to cylinder. Letterpress type was formed into a curve by a process known as stereotyping, invented in 1727. An impression was taken of the typeset page using papier-mache, which was then curved into a half circle and used as a mold to cast copies of the typeset page. The curved page was fitted together with another page around a cylinder and locked in place. Rotary presses may be sheet-fed or web-fed; in the latter case a continuous roll (or web) of paper passes between the cylinders. Rotary printing allows much more rapid production than flat-bed methods.
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Printing Web-fed rotary presses
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Printing (page 4)
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The layout of the page being designed on screen.
Printing (4 of 4)
Water-based inks are unsuitable for printing, since they tend to collect in droplets on metal type and smudge when pressed on paper. The solution, quickly discovered, was to use inks made of pigments dissolved in oil. Vegetable or mineral oils may be used, depending on the type of printing. The black pigment used is generally carbon black.
Paper
The earliest documents were written on clay tablets, and then on parchment, made from the skin of sheep or goat, or vellum, made from calfskin. A writing material prepared from the stem of the papyrus plant was also known to the Ancients. These materials, however, were quite inadequate for the huge volume of printed matter that was made possible by Gutenberg's inventions.
The answer was paper, invented by the Chinese nearly 2000 years ago, but not widely known in Europe until the 12th century. Paper can be made from virtually any fibrous material. The commonest in use today is wood pulp, but recycled material such as rags or waste paper are also used. After felling, trees are turned into chips and then digested into pulp using sodium sulfate. The pulp is bleached and then flows through a narrow slit onto a moving screen that allows the water to drain away. The paper is then pressed to remove more water and dried by steam-heated cylinders. Finally the paper is treated with pigments such as clay to give it a smoother finish, or given a glossy surface with chalk or titanium dioxide.
THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION
Computer technology has revolutionized every stage in the production of printed matter. In a fully computerized system, it is entirely feasible that the material to be printed will never have been set down on paper before it finally passes through the printer's press.
Text may be keyed directly into the computer typesetting system, or an author's word-processed disks may be made compatible with a particular system. The text is displayed on screen, where it may be edited or corrected; typesetting commands - specifying the desired typeface, type size and so on - are also added at this stage. A designer may then assemble the page on screen, juggling pictures and text into the final layout.
Next the text is set in type by a laser guided by the computer. The laser scans to and fro across a sheet of film or photographic paper ('bromide'), tracing the shapes of all the characters according to the instructions prepared at the page-layout terminal. After development, the result is a positive or negative film, or a bromide; in the latter, the characters traced by the laser appear black against a white background. The film or bromide can then be used to prepare printing plates.
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p324-1
The movie camera incorporates a number of mechanical components that allow a sequence of still pictures, or frames, to be shot on a strip of film - usually 24 frames per second. The claw alternately engages and disengages with the sprocket holes in the film, ensuring that the film advances at the correct speed and that the film remains stationary during exposure. Synchronized with the claw is a rotating shutter : the movement of the shutter is timed so that the light path to the film is blocked as the claw advances the film. While the exposure gate is blocked, the mirrored surface of the shutter reflects the image, via a prism, into the viewfinder.
The illusion of movement is created when each frame is projected for a fraction of a second onto a viewing screen. A projector works like a movie camera in reverse. A light source at the rear of the projector is channeled through a gate, projecting each frame through a lens and onto a screen. A claw moves the film through the gate, holding each frame stationary as it is projected, while a rotating shutter is timed to cut off the light source as the film is moving between frames.
Photography and Film (1 of 4)
At least as early as the 4th century BC, the ancient Greeks were familiar with the principle of the camera obscura - a darkened chamber in which an inverted image of the world outside is projected through a small opening onto a flat surface within. However, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that a process was developed by which an image could be made permanent. A camera is essentially a box that is light proof except where the optical component, the lens, projects an image onto a sheet of material inside the camera. This material, usually film, is coated with an emulsion whose chemical properties are changed by exposure to light, and which - after appropriate processing - can reproduce the image.
The emulsion is made of silver halide grains (often silver bromide or iodide), suspended in gelatin. After exposure to light and chemical processing (development), the grains become black metallic silver. When the unexposed silver halide in the parts wholly or partially untouched by light is dissolved away, the picture becomes permanent, or fixed. It is, however, a reversed, or negative, image, with the original light areas reproduced as dark areas, and vice versa. The conversion of the negative to a true, or positive, picture was at first a problem, until a negative/positive technique was evolved, which brought the bonus that an unlimited number of positive prints could be produced from a single negative.
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Photography and Film (page 1)
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Photography and Film (page 2)
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A daguerrotype of a Victorian family in 1845.
Photography and Film (2 of 4)
The early pioneers
In 1826 the Frenchman Nicuphore Niepce (1765-1833) produced the world's first photographic image. In 1839 Niepce's partner Louis Daguerre (1789-1851) marketed his daguerreotype, which used a copper plate coated with light-sensitive silver chloride, and required a half-hour exposure. There was no development in the modern sense, but by using mercury vapor to whiten the exposed silver and common salt to fix it, Daguerre produced a positive picture. In 1841 the Englishman William Fox Talbot (1800-77) patented his negative/positive process (the calotype process). The paper negative was placed face-to-face against another, unexposed, piece of sensitized paper, and then light was passed through the back of the negative. The sensitive paper, when developed, became a positive print.
Later developments
The growth of photography as a profession was greatly assisted by the introduction of a wet-plate process in 1851. A jelly-like solution called collodion was poured onto a glass plate, which was then dipped in silver nitrate solution. The plate was then exposed in the camera and developed before it dried. Portrait and landscape pictures could now be made to order, and intrepid photographers set off on expeditions laden with darkroom tent, glass plates, and chemicals.
The invention of a dry-plate process in the 1870s led to the commercial manufacture of glass plates in which dry gelatin replaced wet collodion. The emulsion was also very much more sensitive. Using a spring-operated shutter, exposure times could therefore be reduced to 1-25 second, thus making a tripod unnecessary.
In 1888 the American George Eastman (1854-1932) produced his first Kodak camera with the slogan 'You press the button, we do the rest.' It was in the well-tried form of a box, but instead of plates used a roll of sensitive paper (later nitrocellulose, or 'film'), which could be wound on between exposures. It took 100 shots, after which the camera was sent back to the manufacturer for development and replacement of the film.
In the 1920s the Leica camera was introduced - the first commercially successful 'miniature' camera able to use 35 mm cinema film. This and subsequent miniature cameras became extremely popular with professionals as well as amateurs. Even smaller cameras were later introduced for the mass market, but were not favored by professionals.
In the mid-20th century the Polaroid camera was invented by the American Edwin Land (1909-91), making 'instant' pictures by processing the film inside the camera itself. This was achieved by incorporating developing agents in the film, activated by bursting a pod containing alkaline solution as the exposed film was pressed between rollers.
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ftsTitleOverride
Photography and Film (page 3)
ftsTitle
In a single-lens reflex (SLR) camera, a single lens is used both for viewing and for taking the picture. A hinged mirror set at 45 degrees directs the image projected through the lens onto a ground-glass focusing screen above the mirror. The laterally reversed image on the screen is then reflected off the sides of a pentaprism (five-sided prism), so that the image is then focused on the screen, and the iris diaphragm is set to contract automatically to the correct aperture as the picture is taken. As the shutter-release button is pressed, the mirror swings up and the shutter opens, thus allowing the image to strike the film.
Focal-plane shutter, located between mirror and film. As the shutter is released, the first blind, normally covering the film, moves across to expose the film. The second blind follows rapidly behind, to cover the film again.
Iris diaphragm, adjusted to control the amount of light admitted through the lens. The diaphragm consists of a set of overlapping hinged blades that move in such a way as to increase the opening, or aperture, at the center of the diaphragm.
Photography and Film (3 of 4)
Modern cameras
Unlike more traditional 35 mm cameras, which have a simple see-through view-finder, the 35 mm single-lens reflex camera allows the user to see the exact picture being taken. Larger cameras may also use the reflex viewfinder. In the case of the twin-lens reflex, the mirror is fixed and has its own lens, of the same characteristics as the taking lens. Although the 35 mm film size is the most popular, larger formats, using sheet film or roll film, are still used where convenience of use is less important than final picture quality.
More sophisticated 35 mm cameras have their own exposure meters, which measure the amount of light falling on the subject and adjust the shutter speed and lens aperture accordingly. They may also incorporate electronic controls and automatic focusing: the user is required only to frame the picture and press the trigger.
Film and color photography
Emulsions have improved continuously. An early step was the introduction of panchromatic film, which was sensitive to red and therefore gave a better tonal rendering. Subsequent films of still greater sensitivity enabled pictures to be taken in poor light, but tended to be less sharp because the silver grains were larger - although this problem was itself solved by the later introduction of sensitive fine-grain films.
Cumbersome ways of making color pictures were evolved in the late 19th century, but it was the appearance of Kodachrome and Agfacolor in the 1930s that introduced modern color films. These were multi-layer films in which three separate emulsions recorded the blue, green and red parts of the image. They were then processed by dyeing each layer with the corresponding complementary color (yellow, magenta and cyan), thus producing three positive images one above the other, which together reproduced the original colors of the image. The final picture was a transparency, to be looked through or projected, but a negative/positive system was soon introduced to produce color prints.
* OPTICS
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* PHOTOGRAPHY AS ART
* CINEMA
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Photography and Film (page 4)
ftsTitle
Faster than the human eye: a bullet traveling at 450 m (1476 ft) per second is captured as it passes through an egg.
High-speed photography generally uses shutter speeds of less than 1/1000 second, and has many applications in science and technology.
Photography and Film (4 of 4)
Applied photography
Photomicrography produces enlarged pictures of tiny objects, and is achieved either by using a short-focus lens on a long-bodied camera, or by taking photographs through a microscope. It has applications in biology and criminology, among other fields.
High-speed photography shows successive phases of movement too fast to be observed by the human eye. Apart from the use of high-speed shutters, a technique known as stroboscopy may be used, in which cameras with open shutters register successive images of a moving object illuminated by intermittent flashes. Such techniques can be used for studying phenomena as disparate as a dancer's movements, explosions, or fracturing metal.
Photography has numerous other specialized applications that have widened the possibilities of many activities and revolutionized others. Using lens filters and special film, for instance, it is possible to select parts of the electromagnetic spectrum other than visible light as the illuminant. X-ray and infrared photography are among the important applications of this technique.
John Logie Baird at a rehearsal for a television program in 1943.
Radio, Television and Video (1 of 4)
The use of electromagnetic waves to carry sound and pictures has revolutionized communications in the 20th century. News, entertainment, sport and education have all been transformed by radio and television. Television has become the single most significant leisure-time activity in developed countries.
The media used to carry information are radio waves, which lie at the low-frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum. Radio waves occur naturally in space, emitted by stars and galaxies, but for broadcasting purposes, they are generated by accelerating electrons inside an aerial (or antenna) - a device used both to emit and receive radio waves. Like all electromagnetic waves, radio waves travel at the speed of light - 300 000 km (186 000 mi) per second in a vacuum.
Long, medium and short radio waves, with wavelengths between 2 km and 10 m (1 1/4 mi and 33 ft), can diffract or 'bend' around obstacles such as hills and are therefore suitable for local radio broadcasting. They are reflected both by the Earth and by the ionosphere (a layer in the atmosphere), and thus can 'bounce' between the two and be transmitted over very long distances. Short waves are reflected best, and are generally used for international broadcasting. VHS (very high frequency) and UHF (ultra-high frequency) waves have shorter wavelengths. They can only travel in a straight-line path, and pass through the ionosphere. They are chiefly used for television and local radio.
Radio
The simplest form of radio transmission is to use a radio transmitter (or, strictly speaking, an emitter) to create a radio wave of a fixed frequency, and a receiver tuned to that frequency to pick it up. By turning the wave on and off, a series of dots and dashes can be transmitted, sending a message in Morse code. In 1894 the Italian Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1919) put together the discoveries of others to create radio. In the attic of his parents' house near Bologna he made a bell ring by sending a radio message across the room. By 1901 he had transmitted the letter S in Morse code across the Atlantic from Cornwall in England to Newfoundland in Canada.
A more sophisticated system is needed to transmit voices and music. A carrier wave, instead of being turned on and off like a tap, must have a second signal imposed on it. This is the process known as modulation. One possibility is amplitude modulation (AM), where the amplitude of the wave is varied; a second is frequency modulation (FM), where the frequency of the wave is varied. A microphone produces a small electrical current representing the sounds made into it. The wave profile corresponding to this current is then superimposed on the carrier wave, broadcast, and finally separated out again at the other end by the radio receiver. An amplifier increases the power of the signal, so that it can operate a loudspeaker, recreating the original sounds made into the microphone.
Light reflected from the scene being televised is focused by lenses and split by means of dichroic (color-separating) mirrors into three separate images, one in each of the three primary colors - blue, green and red. Each beam of colored light is then directed into one of three identical vidicon tubes. The pattern of light falling on a photo conductive layer within each tube causes a varying pattern of electrical resistance; as a electron beam scans the photo conductive area from behind, a varying electric current is induced in a circuit connected to the conductive layer. The pattern of dark and light in each primary-color image is thus converted into one of three varying electrical signals.
A black-and-white luminance (brightness signal is created in the adding unit, by combining information from each of the three color signals. At the same time, the color encoder produces a single chrominance signal, which defines the hue and saturation of each primary color. The luminance and chrominance signals are combined into a composite video signal. Prior to transmission, the audio signal is incorporated, together with a synchronizing pulse ('sync pulse'), which ensures that the electron scanning in the receiving system matches that of the transmitting system.
Radio, Television and Video (2 of 4)
Television
The idea of using radio waves to carry visual information dates back to the early days of radio, but became practical only in 1926. The basic principle is to break up the image into a series of dots, which are then transmitted and displayed on a screen so rapidly that the human eye perceives them as a complete picture.
In 1926 the Scottish inventor John Logie Baird (1888-1946) demonstrated television based on a mechanical method of scanning an image into lines of dots of light. Baird's system had little future, however, and was rapidly superseded by an all-electronic system. This was developed by Vladimir Zworykin (1889-1982), a Russian-born engineer working in the USA. His first practical camera, made in 1931, focused the picture onto a mosaic of photoelectric cells. The voltage induced in each cell was a measure of the light intensity at that point, and could be transmitted as a signal. A modern TV camera operates in essentially the same way, measuring the light intensity at each point of the image. This information is then encoded on the radio wave and transmitted.
At the receiving end, the signal has to be decoded. A TV set is basically a cathode-ray tube, in which a 'gun' fires a beam of electrons at a luminescent screen. As they strike it, the screen lights up. To make up the whole picture the beam is scanned to and fro in a series of lines (625 in modern sets), covering the entire screen in 1/25 second.
* WAVE THEORY
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* CINEMA
* JOURNALISM
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Radio, Television and Video (page 2)
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p326-3
The composite signal picked up by the receiving aerial is decoded, separating out the various constituent signals. The luminance signal controls the overall output of three electron guns in the cathode-ray tube of the receiving set, so determining the balance of light and shade in the final picture. The chrominance signal - now split into the three primary-color signals - regulates the relative strength of each electron beam. The syn pulse, divided into line and frame components, controls the deflection of the beams across and down the screen.
The television screen is coated with stripes of different phosphors, which glow red, blue or green when struck by electrons. Immediately behind the screen is a grille, or shadow mask, which contains many perforations. Traveling at slightly different angles as they pass through the perforations, the electron beams are caused to diverge before striking the screen, in such a way that the electrons from each gun can only reach phosphor stripes of the appropriate color. Each image on the screen thus consists of stripes of varying brightness and color that merge together to form the complete picture.
Radio, Television and Video (3 of 4)
Satellite and cable TV
Because the VHF and UHF wavebands on which television signals are transmitted are not significantly reflected by the ionosphere, many transmitters are needed for complete coverage of all but the smallest countries. For intercontinental TV, some other way of bouncing the signal back from space is needed. This is achieved by satellites above the Earth that pick up the signals and broadcast them back to Earth. The satellite signals are not powerful enough to be picked up by ordinary TV aerials, so they are re-broadcast by ground transmitters. Special dish-shaped aerials can pick up satellite signals, however, making possible continent-wide direct broadcasting by satellite (DBS). Such satellite channels already operate in the USA and Europe.
TV signals can also be fed down cables, making possible networks in which films, news, sport and other programs are available exclusively to those willing to pay a subscription.
* WAVE THEORY
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* CINEMA
* JOURNALISM
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Radio, Television and Video (page 3)
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Radio, Television and Video (page 4)
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A high-definition television system being demonstrated by a scientist. Various companies are developing this type of advanced TV, which displays an image composed of 2000 lines. This gives a resolution 32 times better than that of the usual 'studio quality' systems.
Radio, Television and Video (4 of 4)
Videotext
TV sets can also be used to display written information, in the form of videotext. The written information is transmitted as part of the signal, and decoded by the TV receiver. Each page of information takes about one quarter of a second to transmit. The system runs through a magazine of about 150 pages, taking 30 seconds to complete the cycle before starting again. The user can stop the cycle at any page by keying the number of that page on a keypad. A limit is effectively put on the size of such systems - of which British Ceefax and Oracle are examples - by the fact that if more than 150 pages were transmitted, delays in displaying would be unacceptably long. There is no such limit on the amount of material that can be provided on interactive systems, in which the signal is not broadcast but carried on telephone lines. In these systems, the TV screen is used to display information held in a central computer and accessed by dialing into it over an ordinary telephone line.
Video recorders
TV programs can also be recorded on magnetic tape. The principle is the same as that of an audio tape recorder, but the technology is more complex. The signals are recorded as magnetic patterns on the tape, but because a video signal contains much more information than an audio one, it is necessary to pack it more efficiently onto the tape. Early experimental video tape recorders (VTRs) used fixed recording heads and fast running tape, but needed 32 km (20 mi) of tape to record one hour's TV. The answer was to use a recording head that rotated as the tape ran past it, so that the information was effectively laid out diagonally across the tape, reducing the length of tape needed. This is the principle used by all today's VTRs.
* WAVE THEORY
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILM
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* CINEMA
* JOURNALISM
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Sound Recording (page 1)
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Sound Recording (1 of 3)
The enjoyment of recorded music depends on a series of mechanical, electronic and optical inventions. Although sound has been recorded and reproduced for more than 100 years, techniques have been revolutionized in the 1980s, producing much greater fidelity, convenience and reliability.
Three forms of recorded sound now exist: records in which a fine stylus travels along grooves; tapes in which sounds are recorded as magnetic patterns; and digital (compact') discs in which beams of laser light read patterns of binary digits.
Mechanical recording
The first decisive step in the recording of sound was taken by the American inventor Thomas Edison (1847-1931) in 1877. Edison's phonograph worked by converting sound vibrations into grooves on the surface of a cylinder covered in tinfoil. The grooves were cut by a sharp steel needle (stylus) mounted on a diaphragm at the narrow end of a large horn. Sound channeled through the horn made the diaphragm vibrate, causing the steel point to go in and out and to cut a line of varying depth. The sound could be reproduced by putting the needle back to the start position and rotating the cylinder at the same speed as it had traveled during the recording. Better results were obtained when wax cylinders replaced tinfoil in 1888.
A major drawback of cylinders was that they could not be easily mass-produced. The German-born American Emile Berliner (1851-1929) resolved this difficulty in 1888 with the invention of flat discs. In his gramophone records, the groove ran in a spiral from the edge of the disc towards the center, and the vibrations were recorded and played by side-to-side movements of the needle, rather than up-and-down movements as in Edison's phonograph. Once a master disc had been cut, it could be turned into a metal die, which could then be used to produce as many copies as required. The earliest records were made from vulcanized rubber, but a more suitable material proved to be shellac (a resinous substance derived from insects), which was in use from 1895.
In the 1920s the quality of recordings was greatly improved by the change from acoustic to electrical recording methods. Instead of relying on a vibrating diaphragm, microphones converted sounds into electrical currents, which could then be used to drive cutting machines to create the grooves. In playback, the vibrations picked up by the stylus were used to generate an electrical current, which could be amplified by electronic circuits and played through loudspeakers that converted the electrical signals back into sound.
Record decks
Today's record decks use fundamentally the same principles as the original gramophone. Long-playing records (LPs), made of vinyl plastic instead of breakable shellac and rotating at 33 rpm (revolutions per minute) instead of 78 rpm, were first produced in 1946. They required much lighter stylus pressures to avoid grinding away the soft plastic; and because the grooves were narrower, the styluses needed finer points, usually provided by the use of diamond or sapphire. Instead of a maximum of about 4 minutes' playing time per side, LPs offered more than 20 minutes. For the first time, really accurate reproduction of sound quality became possible: the age of high fidelity - or hi-fi - had arrived.
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS (LASERS)
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* COMPUTERS
* MUSIC
Outline
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Sound Recording (page 2)
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A diamond stylus traveling through the grooves of a long-playing stereo record. The frequency at which the stylus moves from side to side in the groove dictates the pitch of the music, and the amount of the displacement dictates the loudness, thus the wavy groove seen here indicates a loud piece of music. The inner wall of the groove carries the signal from the left-hand microphone; the outer wall carries the right-hand signal. The stylus illustrated in this false-color scanning electron micrograph is encrusted with dirt, even though it has been thoroughly cleaned.
Sound Recording (2 of 3)
Magnetic recording
In 1898 the Danish inventor Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942) devised the telegraphone - a forerunner of the modern tape recorder - which recorded sound by the alternating magnetization of a steel wire. In the 1930s, steel tapes were used successfully by radio stations. However, the invention that made tape recording widely available was the introduction of strong plastic tape covered with iron-oxide powder, developed in 1935 by two German companies, AEG Telefunken and IG Farben. Domestic tape recorders using such tape first appeared in the 1950s. Sounds are recorded by passing the tape in front of a recording head that consists of an electromagnet fed by electrical signals from a microphone. A magnetic pattern corresponding to the sounds is created on the tape as the fragments of iron oxide align themselves with the magnetic field. In playback, the tape passes in front of a second head, inducing in it an electrical current that is proportional to the magnetization of the tape. The current is then passed through an amplifier to loudspeakers, as in a stylus-playback system.
Today, the commonest format for tapes is the compact cassette, introduced by Philips in 1963, which is much more convenient and easily handled than open-reel tapes. The latter are still used, however, in situations where very high quality is required, as, for example, in multi-track studio recording. The effectiveness of tapes as a hi-fi medium has been enormously increased by the noise-reduction system developed by the American engineer Ray Dolby (1933- ). The Dolby system uses electronic processing to reduce the steady background hiss that is otherwise audible.
Stereo
The principles of stereophonic sound were first demonstrated by the British company EMI in 1933, but stereo recordings did not become widely available until 1958. In cutting a stereo disc, two microphones are set up at a distance from one another, and each of them records its own set of sound signals. The aim is to simulate the way in which we hear sounds: having two ears, we simultaneously hear two sounds, which are slightly different and come from slightly different directions. The two channels are recorded on the record in a V-shaped groove with a 90 deg angle. The inner wall of the groove carries the signal from the left-hand microphone, while the outer wall carries the right-hand signal. In playback, the stylus moves from side to side, sending the signals to two loudspeakers. The effect to a listener placed in the right position is to create an illusion of the left-to-right spread of the music. The same effect is achieved on a tape by recording the two signals as separate strips along the tape, then playing them back through two speakers.
Amplifiers and loudspeakers
At the heart of any hi-fi system is the amplifier. An amplifier is essentially a set of electronic circuits that boost the signal from the stylus, CD or the tape deck, which is about one thousandth of a watt, to the 10 watts or more needed to operate the loudspeakers. The circuits are now made from transistors rather than valves, and much effort has gone into designing amplifiers that produce the minimum distortion of the signal.
Loudspeakers convert the electrical signal from the amplifier back into sound again, usually operating on the moving-coil principle. The current from the amplifier flows around a coil of wire that is placed inside the field of a permanent magnet. The interaction between the field produced by the current flowing through the coil and that of the permanent magnet makes the coil vibrate. The coil is attached to a cone of stiff lightweight material that vibrates with it and creates the sounds. No loudspeaker works without distortion over the whole frequency range, so it is common to have several different speakers within the same cabinet. Each speaker serves only that part of the range for which it is designed: low frequencies (i.e. low pitches) are produced by a 'woofer', high ones by a 'tweeter', while more sophisticated loudspeakers may also include a mid-range 'squawker' and a very low-range 'sub-woofer'.
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS (LASERS)
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* COMPUTERS
* MUSIC
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Sound Recording (page 3)
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The surface of a compact disc. In this false-color scanning electron micrograph the plastic covering on the surface of the CD has been cracked to show the pits and blank spaces that are 'read' by a laser device. To reflect the laser light, the pitted surface is covered with a layer of transparent plastic. Further layers of plastic protect the surface from dust and scratches that could affect the sound quality.
Sound Recording (3 of 3)
Compact-disc players
Conventional record players are analog systems, in which the shape of the grooves is a direct and continual physical representation of the sounds of music or speech. An alternative system of recording, made possible by modern electronics, records the sounds digitally, as a series of binary digits, or bits. In a digital system, the sound is 'sampled' 40 000 times a second, and its amplitude and frequency (volume and pitch) are recorded as a binary number. Recordings made in this way can be turned into ordinary analog discs, but the advantages of low distortion and a good signal-to-noise ratio are better preserved in the form of digital ('compact') discs.
Compact discs - which were launched commercially in 1982 - record the bits as a series of pits or blank spaces in the surface of the disc, each pit measuring less than one hundredth of a millimeter across. The discs are made of clear PVC, coated with shiny aluminum and finished with a clear coating of plastic laminate. The pits are 'read' by a laser device, the light from which is either reflected or scattered, depending upon whether it strikes a pit or a blank space. As it scans the record, therefore, it picks up a series of signals, either 1s or 0s, which are the original binary digits of the recording. These signals are then converted to analog currents that can be amplified and fed to loudspeakers.
The advantages of compact discs are high fidelity and robustness - dust and finger marks have no effect - and they have already superseded LPs in sales. In the early 1990s the Digital compact cassette (DCC) and Mini Disc were developed. DCC is a digital recording and playback system based on tape. A mini disc is a miniature version of the compact disc that records.
Making Compact Discs
The life of a compact disc begins when a microphone converts sound waves into electrical signals. The voltage of these signals is measured and electronically coded into binary digits. The binary digits are then coded further to link the two stereo channels into one pulse.
A blank glass disc is coated with a light-sensitive resin and spun under a laser beam. The coded signals are fed to the laser as electrical pulses and are emitted as light flashes that cause a sequence of pits and blank spaces on the coating of the disc (these are revealed once the coating is chemically developed). A mold is taken from the master disc and any number of discs can be made from it. Each disc is given a thin aluminum coating to make it highly reflective, then lacquered for protection.
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS (LASERS)
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* COMPUTERS
* MUSIC
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Telecommunications (page 1)
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Alexander Graham Bell. Bell's interest in transmitting the sound of the human voice grew out of his research into speech mechanics while training teachers for the deaf.
Telecommunications (1 of 4)
The transfer of information by wire or by radio waves is the basis of telecommunications, which is now one of world's biggest and fastest-growing industries. Currently, the most important systems are the telephone, the telegraph, telex, facsimile, and information systems based on the telephone or television.
Today it is possible to send information in different forms - telephone conversations, data and images of documents - around the world in seconds.
Letters have long been the principal form of communication over a distance. By the 17th century in Britain letters and official dispatches were carried by stagecoaches. The recipient paid for the cost of the letter until the introduction of postage stamps in 1840, the first of which was the British 'Penny Black'. For a penny, paid by the sender and registered by fixing a stamp on the envelope, the Royal Mail undertook to deliver a letter weighing not more than half an ounce (about 14 grams) anywhere in the country. Before the penny post, 82 million letters a year were sent, but within 30 years the number had risen to 917 million. Other countries soon followed suit with their own postage stamps.
Telegraphy
Efficient as the 19th century postal system was, a quicker method of communication was needed, particularly to coordinate the movements of the rapidly growing railways. The answer was the electric telegraph. This resulted from the work of a number of pioneers, following the publication by the Danish physicist Hans Christiaan Oersted (1777-1851) of his discovery that a magnetized needle could be deflected by an electric current flowing in a wire.
The electric telegraph was put into a practical form by two Englishmen, Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-75) and William Cooke (1806-79), who were granted a British patent in 1837. The following year the American inventor Samuel Morse (1791-1872) - in partnership with Alfred Vail (1807-59) - devised the Morse code, in which individual letters of the alphabet and digits are represented by different sequences of dots and dashes. This enabled messages to be sent using a single circuit at a rate of 10 words a minute. The operator tapped a key to send the message as a series of electrical impulses. At the other end it was printed out as pen marks on paper tape and decoded. However, the pen was soon replaced by a sounder when it was found that operators could decode messages faster by hearing the sounds of the pen making dots and dashes than by reading the marks on paper.
In 1851 the first telegraph cable was laid across the English Channel, and the first transatlantic cable was laid in August 1858, although it soon failed. In 1866 a more successful cable was laid, and by 1872 the majority of the world's great cities were in contact with one another by telegraph. Telegraphy remained the principal form of telecommunication until just before World War I, when the telephone began to take over.
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p330-2
Early telephone subscribers had to rely on human operators to connect their calls by means of a plug-and-socket arrangements. The first practical automatic switching device was invented in 1889 by Kansas City undertaker, Almon B. Strowger. Fearing that his local operator - the wife of a business rival - was diverting his calls, he devised an automatic exchange - a 'girl-less, wait-less' telephone.
The Strowger system proved so successful that it formed the basis of subsequent mechanical exchanges. A series of electrical pulses, produced by means of a dial, caused a contact arm to rise and rotate through a corresponding number of steps, so making the desired connection. It was not until the 1960s, with the emergence of electronic exchanges, that the dominance of the Strowger system began to be challenged, and some Strowger exchanges are still in use today.
Telecommunications (2 of 4)
Telephones
Transmitting the sound of the human voice required further inventions - the microphone and the receiver. A microphone controls the current in a circuit operating a receiver, which generates a sound similar to that received by the microphone. The first successful telephone was made by the Scottish inventor Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922) in 1876.
The introduction of automatic exchanges early in the 20th century made possible a huge growth in the telephone system. However, a number of technical problems remained. Because even high-quality metal conductors show electrical resistance, it is difficult to send a signal over a long distance. For this reason, amplifiers - known as repeaters - had to be installed at regular intervals to compensate for the loss of power. The cost of providing and maintaining repeaters was considerable, and long distance telephony only became effective once long-lived repeaters had been developed.
During the 1960s electronic exchanges began to be introduced. Dialed numbers are stored electronically and routed to their destination automatically and at great speed. Such exchanges have few moving parts, less noisy lines because there are no mechanical switches, and can operate quickly enough for push-button rather than dial phones to be used.
Multiplexing
In the early days of telephony, each subscriber telephone was connected to the exchange by an individual circuit, and every link between exchanges was achieved by cables transmitting single calls. The result was not only chaotic and unsightly, but also expensive as telephone wires are costly to install and maintain. From 1910, this problem was resolved by the introduction of multiplexing, which allowed more than one call to be sent down the same set of wires at the same time. At its simplest, this is achieved by allocating carrier waves of different frequencies to different calls. These waves are then separated out at the receiving exchange by a tuning arrangement rather like that used in radio sets.
In modern telephony, multiplexing is achieved by pulse-code modulation. The continuous waveform of the human voice is converted into a digital signal by means of sampling at fixed intervals - normally 8000 times a second. These samples are transformed by an encoder into a code that is transmitted in a series of regular pulses and pauses. At the other end, the pulses are separated again into individual conversations, and converted back into a form that is analogous to the human voice so that they can be heard on the telephone. In this method, numerous calls can be transmitted on the same line by using the gaps between the samples.
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Telecommunications (page 2)
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Telecommunications (page 3)
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A spray of polymer optical fibers. Optical fibers have a core of perspex and a thin outer covering of polymer. The fibers illustrated are used for lighting, but those used in optical cables to transmit telephone calls are similar.
Telecommunications (3 of 4)
Telephones
Optical cables
An even better way of transmitting more calls along the same line is to replace electrical currents with microwaves or with light. The amount of information that can be carried is higher for high-frequency carrier waves, but very-high-frequency carrier signals are quickly weakened by ordinary wires. Both microwaves and light produced by lasers offer much higher frequencies, with the capacity to handle thousands of calls along a single link. Cables made of optical fiber, which can transmit laser light over long distances without loss, are now replacing the old copper cables. Optical cables are cheaper to make, tough, flexible, and immune to electrical interference. Each glass fiber in the cable can handle thousands of telephone calls at once, each one at a different frequency.
Optical cables
An even better way of transmitting more calls along the same line is to replace electrical currents with microwaves or with light. The amount of information that can be carried is higher for high-frequency carrier waves, but very-high-frequency carrier signals are quickly weakened by ordinary wires. Both microwaves and light produced by lasers offer much higher frequencies, with the capacity to handle thousands of calls along a single link. Cables made of optical fiber, which can transmit laser light over long distances without loss, are now replacing the old copper cables. Optical cables are cheaper to make, tough, flexible, and immune to electrical interference. Each glass fiber in the cable can handle thousands of telephone calls at once, each one at a different frequency.
Optical cables
An even better way of transmitting more calls along the same line is to replace electrical currents with microwaves or with light. The amount of information that can be carried is higher for high-frequency carrier waves, but very-high-frequency carrier signals are quickly weakened by ordinary wires. Both microwaves and light produced by lasers offer much higher frequencies, with the capacity to handle thousands of calls along a single link. Cables made of optical fiber, which can transmit laser light over long distances without loss, are now replacing the old copper cables. Optical cables are cheaper to make, tough, flexible, and immune to electrical interference. Each glass fiber in the cable can handle thousands of telephone calls at once, each one at a different frequency.
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Telecommunications (page 4)
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Satellite dishes with parabolic reflectors. The aerial bowl reflector has an adjustable mounting, so that it always points at the satellite (in space). The parabolic dish directs received radio waves to a sub-reflector suspended above it, which reflects the waves in turn down a hole in the dish to the receiver station.
Telecommunications (4 of 4)
Telephones
Microwaves and satellites
Radio waves at very high frequencies - microwaves - may be focused into beams and used for the transmission of telephone messages over middle-range distances. Unlike other radio waves with longer frequencies, microwaves are not reflected by the ionosphere and so cannot be used for long-distance telecommunications unless they are transmitted via satellites. The first effective telecommunications satellite was Telstar, launched in 1962. Orbiting the Earth in 150 minutes, the satellite was used to transmit a single television link or a limited number of telephone calls for 20 minutes in each orbit.
Telecommunications satellites now orbit the globe high above the Equator in 24 hours. By this means the satellites are always in the same location relative to stations on Earth and can therefore be used constantly. Satellite telecommunications are largely regulated by half a dozen international organizations, the most prominent of which is the consortium Intelsat, with nearly 120 member states and some 180 stations. Each of its satellites - numbering 13 in 1989 - can link over 30 000 telephone calls and 60 television channels.
Radio waves are used in mobile telephones in cars; these are commonly called cordless telephones, but more accurately referred to as cellular radio. Because the number of users is greatly in excess of the number of radio channels available for this service, the area over which cellular radio operates is divided into cells in each of which there is a low-power radio transmitter whose operations are confined to the users in its area. By this means the number of calls on the system can be multiplied by the number of cells. Calls between cells are transmitted via a central control.
Data transmission
Telephones are not restricted to communication by voice. Increasingly they are being used to send data from computer to computer, and images of documents by facsimile transmission (fax). In many Western countries telephones are widely used to send information for display on a TV set. These services are known generically as viewdata. They offer a great range of information, which is stored centrally on a computer database and covers topics as varied as stock-market prices, sports and general news, holiday information, job advertisements, weather forecasts and entertainment guides.
For transmission of computer data, a modem - modulator-demodulator - is needed at each end of the line. A modem converts the digital signals from the computer into a form that can be transmitted by telephone and reconverts them at the other end. Provided the telephone lines are good enough, portable computers can now be connected up to the telephone system anywhere in the world, and used to send information elsewhere. Where lines are poor, telex systems - the descendants of the telegraph - survive. These send images of documents along the line, letter by letter, to be printed out at the far end.
Facsimile transmission - fax - is one of the fastest growing of the new telephone services. It has been available for many years - particularly in Japan, where the language, with its many symbols, makes telex too complex. Fax has only really begun to grow rapidly, however, with the availability of much cheaper machines. Fax works by scanning a sheet of typed or handwritten material, and turning the result into a digital signal that can be sent over the telephone network to a designated fax machine somewhere else. It is by far the quickest way to transmit images of drawings or typed documents.
The telephone network can also be used to send electronic mail from terminal to terminal, and to replace the use of cash for purchasing goods. Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is a system for automatically debiting a customer's bank account and transferring money to that of the store, without handling cash, checks or credit cards. EFT is still in its infancy, but offers great economies over the existing paper-laden systems and is likely to grow.
* AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* RADIO, TELEVISION AND VIDEO
* COMPUTERS
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ftsTitleOverride
Seeing the Invisible (page 1)
ftsTitle
A gamma-camera scan of the skull of a patient suffering from secondary bone cancer. This color-coded image shows the position and intensity of gamma rays emitted from a radioactive isotope injected into a blood vessel supplying the skull region. The technique depends on the fact that the radioisotope forms greater concentrations in tumors and cancerous bone (shown here in red) than in unaffected areas.
Seeing the Invisible (1 of 3)
The light by which we see is only one of many means at our disposal for detecting, measuring and observing things. We can also use sound, beams of electrons, and radiation in various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared radiation, gamma rays, X-rays and radio waves. By these means we can penetrate the depths of outer space and gain access to a hidden world inside our own bodies, deep in the oceans and under the Earth's crust.
These forms of radiation - like light -exhibit wave-like properties and travel in straight lines. In certain circumstances, therefore, they can be used to provide sharp shadows or clear images of objects that would otherwise be invisible.
X-rays
When Wilhelm Rontgen (1845-1923) discovered X-rays in 1895, the effect was sensational. By directing X-rays through the body of a living person, the bones within the flesh - which absorb X-rays - could be seen as shadows cast on photographic emulsions or fluorescent screens. Within months X-rays were in use for diagnosing bone fractures. It was quickly found that the digestive tract could also be seen, if the patient were 'fed' with a chemical such as barium sulfate that absorbs X-rays and therefore shows up when scanned.
X-rays were so called because Rontgen did not know what they were and gave them the name mathematicians give to an unknown quantity. They are in fact a form of short-wave electromagnetic radiation emitted by cathode-ray tubes. More than a momentary exposure to X-rays damages tissue, which has given them a second use in radiotherapy, where they are used to destroy cancers in the body.
The use of X-rays in diagnosis was revolutionized by the development in 1973 of computerized axial tomography, applied first to the skull and later to the whole body. Earlier tomography techniques had provided cross-sectional images, but with nothing like the clarity of this new method. The patient is placed inside a machine in which the body is scanned by a rotating source of X-rays. Variations in the density of the tissues are detected, and assembled by a computer into a cross-section of the brain or body.
In addition to their medical applications, X-rays may also be used to examine inanimate objects, such as baggage at airport check-ins or to detect subsurface defects in materials. Gamma rays are sometimes used for similar purposes, while historical documents (for instance) are studied in very much the same way using beta rays.
Sound
Animals such as bats, whales and dolphins have long been known to use high-pitched sounds to locate objects in the dark. In the 1920s sonar or ultrasound devices - closely mimicking the ultrasonic technique used by animals - were developed, primarily for naval use in detecting enemy submarines. A series of pulses of sound in the ultrasonic region - above the range of human hearing - are sent out and their reflections detected. From the time taken for the pulses to return, the position of intervening objects can be determined. Whereas bats use ultrasonic emissions (with very short wavelengths) because they need to locate tiny objects such as insects, sonar uses ultrasonics to avoid the excessive spreading of the beam in water. Such techniques are also commonly used to measure the depth of water, and can be used by fishing boats to gauge the position of shoals of fish, or by geologists to study the sea bed.
Ultrasound has applications in medicine, where it has distinct advantages over X-rays. Whereas X-rays cannot be used on pregnant women for fear of injuring the fetus, ultrasound scanning has no damaging effects. The images obtained are so precise that they can even be used to guide operations on the unborn child to relieve a number of dangerous conditions.
Yet another application of sound is in seismic surveying in the search for oil and minerals. A loud impact on the ground, created by an explosive charge or by dropping a heavy weight, creates sound waves that travel down into the Earth and are reflected back from underground rock layers. The sound waves are detected by an array of instruments at the surface, and the data can be processed and displayed by computer. From the arrangement of the rock layers, geologists can estimate the chances of finding particular minerals or a reservoir of trapped oil or gas.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
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Seeing the Invisible (page 2)
ftsTitle
Seeing the Invisible (2 of 4)
Radar
Radio waves - like sound waves - are reflected off solid objects. This fact led to the development of radar (short for 'radio detection and ranging'), following studies by a number of scientists in the 1930s. In order to give suitably narrow beams, of adequate intensity and able to offer accurate location of objects, the shortest wavelengths then attainable were used. Initially this meant wavelengths of several meters, but this was gradually reduced, microwaves coming into use in the early 1940s. Radar sets were installed in Britain in time to provide early detection of the oncoming squadrons of German fighters and bombers in the Battle of Britain in 1940.
Microwaves are transmitted in the form of pulses, with the gaps between pulses chosen so that there is time for the reflected pulse to return and be detected before the next is sent out. From the time taken for the pulse to bounce back, the distance to the object can be calculated. If the object under surveillance is moving, the frequency of the echo will change, and from this variation in frequency - known as the Doppler shift - it is possible to determine both the object's speed and its direction of movement.
Radar today has many uses, both military and civilian. The biggest radar sets are used to give advance warning of a nuclear attack by detecting missiles soon after launch. Both the navigation of ships in crowded sea lanes and air-traffic control would be impossible without radar. It can also be used in weather forecasting and for mapping. Radar altimeters in aircraft work by sending signals to the ground and measuring the time it takes them to return. The data is then used to calculate the aircraft's altitude.
Radio astronomy
In 1931 it was discovered that there are radio waves emanating from sources in space. They were first detected by an American engineer, Karl Jansky (1905-1950), who was studying static, the noisy crackling sound that interferes with radio reception. He discovered a source of radio waves far outside the solar system, in the constellation of Sagittarius.
After World War II a number of radio telescopes were built to investigate these sources. Some extraordinary and unexpected features of the universe were revealed, including pulsars, tiny collapsed stars rotating at up to 30 times a second and emitting intense beams of radio waves. Radio astronomy was also responsible for discovering the most distant objects ever detected - quasars, quasi-stellar objects that are thousands of millions of light years away and emit as much radio energy as a whole galaxy. X-ray telescopes carried by satellites have also been used for astronomical observation.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
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Seeing the Invisible (page 3)
ftsTitle
A scanning electron micrograph of a dust mite among household dust, shown in false color and magnified 500 times. Scanning electron microscopes are capable of magnifying objects up to a million times their real size, and have been responsible for some of the most dramatic pictures ever taken.
Seeing the Invisible (3 of 4)
Electron microscopy
However powerful an optical microscope, there is a limit to its resolving power, set by the wavelength of visible light (typically about 5 x 10-7 m). Although particles much smaller than this wavelength can be detected, it is not possible to resolve any detail or to separate close objects. The answer is to use a beam of electrons. Such beams typically have wavelengths 10 000 times shorter than that of visible light, and much shorter wavelengths are possible; they can be focused (by means of electric or magnetic fields) to form images.
The first electron microscopes were built in the 1930s. A thin slice is taken from the material to be examined. A beam of electrons is then passed through the slice, and the electrons strike a screen to produce an image. An alternative is the scanning electron microscope, in which the beam scans across the surface of the object, producing a detailed three-dimensional image. Its one limitation is that it cannot study living specimens, because the object must be kept in a vacuum to prevent air molecules interfering with the beam.
Image intensifiers
Image intensifiers can be used to amplify electronically the image or shadow produced by detection techniques using various types of radiation. Particularly in military contexts, image intensifiers have been adapted for use at night, to boost the tiny quantities of moon- or starlight reflected from targets or other objects. Essentially they work like TV cameras, turning the image into a signal that can be amplified and displayed on a screen. Devices sensitive to emissions of infrared radiation can be used for a variety of detection and imaging purposes. In military contexts, infrared sensors are used to detect heat given out by engines or even individual soldiers. Because infrared devices can operate in complete darkness, photographic emulsions sensitive to infrared light can be used at night or in conditions of poor visibility.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
Outline
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ftsTitleOverride
Seeing the Invisible (page 4)
ftsTitle
Electron microscopes are capable of magnifying objects far greater than optical microscopes. Here a scorpion is examined with a color electron microscope.
Seeing the Invisible (4 of 4)
LANDSAT
The Landsat satellite program launched by NASA in 1972 has provided a wealth of information on a wide range of geographical phenomena - data that would have been difficult or impossible to amass on the ground. The visible and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in sunlight are reflected with varying intensity by different areas of the Earth's surface, such as forest, sea and arable land. The Landsat satellites are equipped with scanning devices that are sensitive to, and able to measure, the different types of reflected radiation. The data collected in this way is transmitted in digital form to Earth, where it can be assembled by computer into images. The data can be processed in a variety of ways, specific features being enhanced to suit the requirements of a particular analysis.
The two Landsat maps shown here are before-and-after' photographs. They are both of the low-land area along the Mississippi River in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi. The first map shows the area before heavy rains in the Southeastern states during March 1973. The second map shows the same area after the rains and the resultant flooding.
* WAVE THEORY
* ACOUSTICS
* OPTICS
* ELECTROMAGNETISM
* ATOMS AND SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
* MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
* FINDING OIL
* DISCOVERING MINERALS
* APPLIED PHOTOGRAPHY
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**++*
p334-1
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Computers (page 1)
ftsTitle
EDSAC (1946), containing 3500 valves, was the first stored-program computer in operation. It is seen here with its designers, Maurice Wilkes and W. Renwick.
Computers (1 of 3)
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a predetermined sequence of commands to produce a desired result. Initially computers were seen solely as devices for performing mathematical calculations, but they have far exceeded the expectations of their original designers. Almost any kind of information can be represented in a form that can be handled by a computer - letters of the alphabet, dots that form pictures, telecommunication signals and graphs, to name but a few.
In order to manipulate information, computers are fed instructions known as programs. There are many different types of computer program (collectively known as software), all of which tell the hardware (the machinery of the computer) precisely what to do at some point in the process of communication or data handling. The machine does exactly what it is instructed to do by the software, only much quicker than a human - hence the illusion of intelligence.
Any computer has four essential elements: (1) a storage device to record data; (2) a processor to manipulate data; (3) an input/output device to get data into and out of the machine; (4) a program to control the process.
Types of storage device
All data is stored and manipulated in a computer in binary - a number system that uses just 1s and 0s. Each of the binary digits, or bits, is represented by an electronic circuit, or other device, that can have only one of two positions, either 'on' or 'off'.
Bits are grouped into bytes - the fundamental unit used to determine the address, or location, of an item of data in the memory of a computer. Most computers use 8-bit bytes. Modern computers often have large amounts of data and programs that are loaded when the computer is built. This data - which can not be changed by the user - is called ROM (Read-Only Memory).
A ROM is one type of integrated circuit or chip that is used to make a computer. Each of these chips is a single piece of silicon that has millions of transistors within it, all interconnected to form an array of circuits, in which each tiny memory circuit stores a single bit of information. Complex chips of this nature are constructed using VLSI - Very Large-Scale Integration.
Computer memory that can be changed is called RAM or DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAMs hold the data as a static electric charge that must be refreshed regularly before the charge leaks away.
Information that is to be kept on a long-term basis, or even removed from the computer, is stored on magnetic disks or tapes. These store a signal in exactly the same way as a domestic tape recorder. Computers can also use a modified form of compact-disc player called a CD-ROM to hold large quantities of read-only data. CD-ROMs can store 600 times as much information as can be held inside the computer or on a removable magnetic disk, for about the same cost as an audio CD. They are used to store directories and other reference material. A further development is CDI (CD-interactive), which allows interaction between program and user.
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* NUMBER SYSTEMS
* SETS AND LOGIC
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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p334-2
Computers (2 of 3)
The processor and microprocessor
Many powerful computers use large numbers of integrated circuits mounted on printed circuit boards to make the processor. Microcomputers use a processor that is all on a single chip - a microprocessor. Microprocessors were originally de signed to be used in, for example, digital wrist watches, desk calculators and control circuitry for washing machines and video players.
Each instruction that the processor executes manipulates the data through operations such as the addition and subtraction of values by setting and clearing individual bits. It then selects which instruction to execute next by testing the results of these operations.
Computers are now classified into the following categories: (1) microcomputer - this has a single-chip processor; (2) minicomputer - a computer (often used for small office networks) that is intermediate in capacity between a microcomputer and a mainframe; (3) mainframe - the most powerful general-purpose computer; (4) supercomputer - a computer designed specifically for speed.
Software
The program is a series of coded instructions held as numbers, each of which makes the computer perform a simple movement or manipulation of an item of data.
Machine-code programming is the most detailed way of programming a computer. It involves coding the instructions in numbers that can be directly obeyed by the computer. Programmers write the instructions in groups of three or four bits, and since each group can have 8 or 16 values, these systems are called octal and hexadecimal.
Gradually a method of writing down programs was developed using mnemonics (a device to assist the memory) instead of numbers. A special program, called an assembler, takes the original text, written in mnemonics, and translates it into binary values for the machine-code instructions.
However, programming in this way still relies on an intimate knowledge of the internal workings of the computer. FORTRAN and COBOL were the first high-level computer languages to be used that did not require a programmer to be familiar with the details of how the computer worked.
Most programs contain errors or bugs. Discovering and removing bugs is both difficult and time-consuming. Some computer languages - such as BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), which was developed as a language suitable for beginners - speed up debugging by interpreting each line of the program just before it is executed. This avoids the need to recompile the program after each bug is traced and eliminated.
As computers became more sophisticated, the need arose for the manufacturers to provide an operating system to control access and to assist the use of the machine. A typical operating system includes utility programs for common operations and a method of storing and filing information on a disk.
There is now such great demand for software that programs must be written using still higher levels of abstraction. Fourth- generation languages (4GL) have been developed to enable a programmer to describe the problem and the data, and to leave the computer to write the actual programs. Although this may produce programs that are less efficient, it makes the best use of the most valuable resource - the human programmer.
'Off the shelf' programs are called applications. The most common type on larger computers is the database, but small computers are predominantly used for word processing. A database allows information to be collected, stored, classified and looked up at random. These types of actions require a large mass of information to be stored in an organized way. Modern database programs use some form of standard 'structured query language' (SQL) to express what information is required from a database. Other popular types of programs include the spread sheet, which produces the results of elaborate calculations on rows and columns of numbers on several sheets, computer-aided design, and multimedia educational programs that combine sound, words and visual displays.
* FIBER OPTICS
* ELECTRICITY IN ACTION
* NUMBER SYSTEMS
* SETS AND LOGIC
* SOUND RECORDING
* TELECOMMUNICATIONS
* ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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Computers (page 2)
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Part of an integrated circuit, or silicon chip, color-enhanced and magnified 110 times, showing two connecting wires bonded to terminal pads on the edge of the device. The small squares at the end of the two tracks running between the pads are transistors, which act as switches to control the input and output to the connecting wires.
Computers (3 of 3)
Increasing performance
Between 1950 and 1990 computer performance increased about one million times. The speed of the basic circuitry improved only about 10 000 times; the remainder of the improvement came from changes in the internal organization of computers.
The amount of work done in a processor as a result of a single instruction is determined by word length - the number of bits that are processed at a time. The earliest microprocessors handled only four bits at a time, although the first general-purpose microcomputers had eight-bit words. Common computers now use 16-, 32- and even 64-bit words, and are correspondingly more powerful.
Most computers can be made to operate faster by making things happen in parallel. A well-designed computer has all the parts working at the same instant of time; however, many low-cost computers have very fast memories and processors, but relatively slow disks. Various techniques, called caching and memory-resident disks, have been developed to try to restore the balance.
Supercomputers have been designed to operate at very high speed. Many computers that are used for military purposes are specifically designed for their task and have very high performance. They perform tasks such as tracking aircraft on radar. In practice, the maximum power of a computer is limited by the heat that it generates internally, and by the time taken for a signal to travel within it. Research is currently being conducted into replacing electronic signals within computers by laser light. If successful, this promises to produce even more powerful computers.
LANDMARKS IN COMPUTING
1790 Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) used punched cards to control a weaving loom.
1842 Charles Babbage (1791-1871) de signed the Difference engine - a semi-automatic mechanical calculator.
1890 Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) suc cess fully used punched cards to record the American census.
1941 Konrad Zuse (1910- ) made a mechanical computer complete with mechanical memories and arithmetic units made from relays.
1945 COLOSSUS I was developed to decode secret messages during World War II.
1945 ENIAC, the first general-purpose machine was designed by J. P. Eckert and J. W. Maunchly. It was used to calculate the trajectories of bombs and shells. ENIAC had 18 000 valves, weighed 30 tonnes, consumed 140kW, and occupied 85 cubic metres.
1946 EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator), the first stored-program computer in operation. This machine was similar to the EDVAC, designed in the USA by a team led by John von Neumann (1903-57).
1947 Transistor demonstrated.
1952 First use of germanium semiconductor diodes in a machine called Gamma 3.
1957-59 Programming languages such as FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator), ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language), and COBOL (COmmercial Business Orientated Language) were introduced.
1958 First computers to use transistors, e.g. Elliott 802.
1964 First integrated circuits, e.g. IBM System 360.
1965 BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) - the most common interpreted language - developed by Kemeny and Kurtz.
1965 Digital Equipment made the PDP-8, the first mass-produced
A SIMPLE COMPUTER
In this simple computer the control unit works its way through the following steps at each clock interval: 1. The control unit uses the address of the next instruction to read an instruction from RAM memory and loads it into the special store called the instruction register.
2. The control unit then determines the type of instruction. If it is arithmetic, then the control unit will select the appropriate general-purpose register and connect its output to the inputs of the ALU.
3. Next, the ALU will perform the required operation and the output is connected by the control unit to the input of a general-purpose register where it is stored.
4. The control unit fetches the next instruction and executes it as above.
Similar sequences transfer data between the registers and the memory, or change the address of the next instruction to be read.
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Artificial Intelligence (page 1)
ftsTitle
Speech-recognition systems: an engineer tests a talk-writer computer, which allows the machine to interpret and act upon human voice patterns. The interpretation of voice patterns is a criterion for the development of fifth-generation computer systems, in which extreme user-friendliness - the ability to communicate in natural language - would be a major feature. Fifth-generation computers will be radically different from existing machines and will be based on expert systems, very high-level programming languages, decentralized processing and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) microchips.
Artificial Intelligence (1 of 5)
Computer scientists have long dreamt of building machines that can think. So far they have failed, but in the process they have taught us much about the way that humans think. The problem for the field of artificial intelligence (AI) has been in defining intelligence and demonstrating that machines are capable of it.
The British mathematician Alan Turing (1912-54) designed an experiment to test whether a machine shows intelligence. In Turing's experiment a human conducts a dialogue - by means of a computer terminal - with both a machine and another human, hidden behind a screen. Both respondents must answer every question put to them. Turing argued that if the questioner could not decide which of the two respondents was the machine, then the machine would have demonstrated intelligence.
AI researchers have adopted two very different approaches to building intelligent machines. Some have tried to build machines that use the same principles as biological intelligence, while others have chosen examples of intelligent behavior (such as chess playing or language) and tried to build machines that copy it.
Since its origins in the mid-1950s, AI research has attacked a wide range of problems. These include problem solving, natural language and vision.
Problem solving
The first attempts to tackle problem solving (often used as a measure of intelligence) produced the Logic Theorem program in the 1950s. As its name suggests, it was capable of proving theorems. Later came a more advanced program called the General Problem Solver, which was able to tackle more complex mathematical problems.
Since then computer scientists have made great strides in improving the problem- solving abilities of computers, but these are still confined to those problems that lie within the realms of logic.
Language
A major goal of AI research is to enable humans to interact with computers using natural language - language that is written and spoken by humans, as distinct from computer-program languages.
To understand and interpret such language, much more knowledge is needed than was once thought. Computers have to be able to work out the context in which a word is uttered in order to interpret what is being said. To this end AI researchers have made use of the ideas of the linguist Noam Chomsky, who suggested that language obeys a set of rules that can be expressed in mathematical terms.
Running parallel with this work on natural language, research has been undertaken into speech recognition. Speech-recognition systems use information about the structure and components of speech and are typically trained' in on one person's voice. The challenge is to develop a machine that can recognize what any one of a variety of speakers is saying - even if their voice is affected by, for instance, a cold - and distinguish speech from background noise.
Storing knowledge
Computers are able to store a vast amount of information, but this cannot be stored in an orderless mass - the computer has to be able to get at the relevant bits of information to solve a given problem.
To decide how computers should store information most efficiently for the purposes of AI, scientists have explored how humans store and access the knowledge in their brains. As a result much has been discovered about how humans learn.
Expert systems
The most tangible and practical result of AI research has been expert systems. These are designed to help humans make decisions, typically in solving problems where it would otherwise be necessary to call in an expert in a particular area.
Many early expert systems tackled medical diagnosis, but industry and commerce have now begun to take them seriously. Finance companies use them to advise on whether a customer should be given a loan, or what type of insurance would best suit their needs. Expert systems have also been used in mineral prospecting and chemical analysis, and to build computers. They are particularly valuable where decisions have to be made in a hostile environment, such as nuclear power plants.
An expert system has three components:
(1) a database or knowledge base, in which the knowledge and experience of an expert are summarized in the form of rules;
(2) an inference engine, which is a program that searches the knowledge base for the best possible answer to a question;
(3) a user interface, which allows the user to talk' to the system.
The software needed to build an expert system - a so-called shell - is already widely available. Although a shell lacks only the knowledge base, building the knowledge base proves in practice to be difficult and time-consuming. Experts often find it difficult to explain to a computer engineer exactly how they reach their decisions, and translating the mechanics of these decisions - which may rely heavily on experience and intuition - into the exact mathematical logic required by a computer is a complex task. Building the knowledge base has spawned the new field of knowledge engineering - the process of getting the knowledge out of the human expert and translating it into a database of rules.
Expert systems are of no use where intuition or common sense is necessary - they can only be used where the decision-making process follows a simple, well-defined logic path. But such systems are very valuable where experts are scarce, or as a means of preserving knowledge and transferring it to others as individuals retire or change jobs.
* THE BRAIN
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* COMPUTERS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
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p336-2
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Artificial Intelligence (page 2)
ftsTitle
Computer-aided design has become a feature of not only car design but also the composition of aircraft, shoes and buildings. The design of complicated items requires many related computations. Computers and super computers are able to perform such calculations at very high speeds. Computer graphics are then used to show the results.
Artificial Intelligence (2 of 5)
Neural computing
As neurophysiologists have begun to unravel the structure of the brain, computer scientists have seized upon their findings as a potential basis for a computer architecture.
The brain is essentially a complex network of interlinking neurones (nerve cells) and it is this interlinking that is the key to solving problems quickly. The idea of building a neural network has been around since the 1940s, but only since the early 1980s has interest been rekindled. In this time computer technology has advanced rapidly, making the prospect of building neural computers more realistic.
Neural networks offer big advantages over conventional (von Neumann) computers in searching large databases for close matches, or storing and accessing data. They consist of a large number of processors (nodes) - the points at which the information is processed - linked by communication channels. Neural computers learn by example; they are not programmed like conventional computers, which means that they are not simply given a series of instructions to carry out. They use the concept of feedback - where part of the output of a node is returned as input for another process, for self-correction - and hence they can interact with their environment.
They also differ from conventional computers in that changing the interconnections between nodes alters the behavior of the network, making it suitable for a particular kind of problem solving.
Neural networks are now finding their way into the commercial world; early applications are in financial advice, recognizing intruders, and detecting explosives.
Robotic arms working on the assembly line of a car production plant. Because of their suitability for carrying out repetitive tasks with speed and accuracy, robots are widely used to assemble cars.
Artificial Intelligence (3 of 5)
Thinking machines?
The road to the thinking machine is proving longer and more difficult than the AI pioneers of the 1940s and 1950s believed. There is still much debate in the AI community about whether computers will ever be able to think, or to display the traits normally considered essential for intelligence.
But the pursuit of the thinking machine has brought us robots, machine translation, computer systems capable of obeying verbal instructions and recognizing faces, and a chess-playing program capable of beating some of the world's top players. While the debate continues, research into AI is bringing a better understanding of brain function and our own intelligence, and an insight into such things as speech disorders and learning problems.
Cars on a assembly line are put together with the help of robotic arms.
Artificial Intelligence (4 of 5)
ROBOTICS
A major branch of AI is robotics. Although still in its infancy, robotics has already produced practical applications. They are used on car production assembly lines to carry out repetitive tasks, and can also perform many tasks that would be too dangerous for human workers. Mobile robots are being used, for instance, in the investigation and controlled destruction of terrorist bombs. Similarly, robotic manipulators are widely used in highly radioactive environments.
A key element of the microelectronics of robots is the negative feedback control system. In negative feedback, information about the effect of the control is fed back to the controlling part of the system so as to adjust it appropriately. The feedback is called negative because the information passing back has the effect of opposing the direction or force of the controlling influence. In driving a car, if the wheel is turned too far clockwise the information fed back is that the vehicle is veering too far to the right. If negative feedback is applied, the wheel will be turned anti-clockwise and the deviation corrected. A simple mechanical device that uses a negative feedback control system is called a servomechanism. The idea has been extended in power, scope and precision by the use of microelectronics.
The essential features of an industrial robot are that it should have a means of acquiring information (a sensor), a means of analyzing and comparing that information with the task required of it (a computer), and a means of effecting an action (manipulator). Sensors are varied, but all of them simulate the functions of the human senses. Miniature television cameras provide visual data; microphones provide sound information; touch sensors indicate contact and can distinguish different surfaces; movement and position sensors indicate acceleration and a change of location; chemical smell' receptors respond to volatile agents in the atmosphere; even taste sensation can be simulated.
Robot manipulators are modeled on the human arm. To be able to work in three dimensions a robotic arm must be capable of moving in a minimum of three directions, or, as engineers express it, it must have three degrees of freedom. The most flexible type of arm has this amount of rotational freedom and the computer has to perform complex mathematics to calculate movements and avoid collisions. However, even this type of arm is incapable of such a function as turning a screwdriver. For this reason a wrist' is commonly fitted to the end of the arm, which may have three degrees of freedom itself. Almost any kind of tool can then be fitted to the part beyond the wrist.
Most robots are fixed in position so the mechanical manipulator arm can be used with precision. Artificial intelligence research, however, is now being directed towards allowing robots to acquire so much information about their environment that they will be able to move about safely and thus widen their scope of action.
* THE BRAIN
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* COMPUTERS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
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Cars on an assembly lineTime~*
**++*
p336-5
Artificial Intelligence (5 of 5)
Storing Information
There are many ways of storing information. Some commonly used approaches include:
Trees: here the relationship between chunks of knowledge is expressed as rules (or branches).
Frames: similar to a series of boxes, where related facts can be stored or pigeon-holed.
Semantic nets: these show the relationships between different chunks of knowledge.
Shown here are different was of organizing the knowledge that birds and mammals are animals, sparrows and penguins are birds, sparrows can fly but penguins cannot, whales and cat are mammals, whales can swim.
* THE BRAIN
* THE POWER OF SPEECH
* LEARNING, CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE
* COMPUTERS
* LOGIC AND ARGUMENT
* HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
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Artificial Intelligence (page 5)
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p338-1
Ground-bearing concrete slab floor. The concrete slab may be reinforced with steel bars, depending on ground conditions and loading requirements.
` I Building Construction (1 of 4)
The essential task of building construction is to satisfy that most basic of human needs - a roof over one's head. Buildings have many purposes and construction is not confined to providing dwellings: it embraces the provision of shelter for most human activities.
The purpose of a roof is to cover a floor, and floor area is the prime feature of a building's specification. In modern times, building design has aimed to minimize the cost per square meter of floor, while observing local or national building and planning regulations. Building regulations specify approved techniques and materials, chiefly with the aim of enhancing safety, but because they generally favor well-tried methods, they tend to delay innovation. Planning regulations are concerned rather with the appearance of a building and its suitability to a particular location. In cities, where land is expensive, high-rise buildings may be cheaper per square meter, despite the greater construction costs.
Parts of a building
The part of a building above ground level is called the superstructure; the part falling below ground level is referred to as the substructure. The stability of a building depends on its load-bearing components. There are three kinds of load: 1. Dead - resulting from the weight of the building itself; 2. Live - the result of furnishing, equipment and bodies; 3. Lateral - the result of sideways pressure, typically due to wind.
In a typical house, the load is borne principally by load-bearing walls. Internal dividing walls or partitions may or may not carry loads. Larger buildings may also use columns, arches and domes to support loads. The load-bearing substructure is known as the foundations, or footings, and for a house this is usually concrete supports for the load-bearing walls. Where the ground is soft, raft foundations may be used, which distribute the load evenly over the area occupied by the building. For larger buildings, piles may be driven through the ground to connect the substructure with ground of sufficient strength to support the building.
An alternative to load-bearing walls is skeleton construction, in which a structural frame carries the load, and the walls (curtain walls) are used simply to enclose space. In most conditions, load-bearing walls are not suitable for structures of more than four floors.
* CIVIL ENGINEERING
* VISUAL ARTS
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Roof. Prefabricated trussed rafter offering economies in timber and construction time, are increasingly replacing traditional cut-timber roofs. Condensation in the roof void is minimized by adequate ventilation (typically provided by a continuos air gap running under the eaves) and by a vapor barrier (foil-backed plasterboard), which prevents moisture rising from the living area below.
Building Construction (2 of 4)
The development of building construction
The post-and-lintel technique, in which vertical posts support horizontal lintels, has a long history; it is exemplified in its basic form by the ancient stone circle at Stonehenge in England. The method has been used from antiquity for supporting roofs, the posts often taking the form of pillars, as in Egyptian and Greek temples. It is suitable for timber as well as masonry construction.
A way of spanning larger openings is provided by the arch (developed by the Romans), but this is not required in smaller, domestic buildings. The pointed arch, a feature of Gothic architecture foreshadowed modern skeleton building in that loads were not transferred from the arch to the walls, but to load-bearing ribs, buttresses, shafts and piers. This enabled walls to be pierced for large openings.
In most countries timber was the favored material for dwellings. Where wood was plentiful, planks or split trunks could form walls, but elsewhere the spaces between the wooden frame were filled with wattle (intertwined sticks and twigs) covered in clay and, later, with brick or tile. By about 1600 - when good wood was already becoming scarce - most town houses in Europe were half-timbered, having a load-bearing oak frame filled in with various materials. The box-like frame was often designed to allow the upper story to overhang, thereby casting rainwater at a safe distance from the lower story. Foundations were usually of stone.
The large floor area needed by the factories of the 18th and 19th centuries was provided by the use of timber or cast-iron pillars to support beams and floors. The construction of the Crystal Palace in London for the Great Exhibition of 1851 encouraged the design of buildings with cast-iron frames, and it was experience with cast-iron structures such as these that eventually led to steel-framed multistory buildings and finally to the sky scraper. The latter became possible with the introduction of steel-skeleton construction, first used in the Home Insurance Building in Chicago in 1880, while the use of lifts (elevators) from 1860 on wards was a practical necessity.
Modern structural design
After World War II, skeleton-frame buildings became increasingly popular, especially for offices. Walls could be thin and light, thereby allowing the frames to support a greater weight of floor. The outer face of the building could take many decorative or practical forms, including aluminum or stainless-steel sheeting, enameled steel, glass and bronze. Sometimes these faces had a fire-resistant backing consisting of a concrete layer, insulation, seal and internal finish, forming a prefabricated sandwich.
Domestic dwellings saw fewer changes in the postwar years. Skeleton-frame construction, however, was used in the form of timber-framed housing, in which the timber members carried the loads and were covered by curtain walls on the outside, and by plasterboard or other finishing materials on the inside. In many countries, especially where skilled labor was scarce, prefabricated or industrialized building systems were introduced, in which the main components were made in factories for easy assembly on site. Panel systems, in which the walls were load-bearing, became popular, as did box systems, in which prefabricated boxes consisting of wall, roof and floor were designed to be assembled in various configurations.
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Building Construction (page 2)
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Foundation and walls. The cavity wall consists of a load-bearing inner leaf and a facing outer leaf, joined at intervals by ties and containing insulating material. Damp is prevented from rising up the walls from the ground by a damp-proof course (DPC), while any water penetrating through to the cavity is channeled to the outside via weepholes located above a concrete fill. Foundations are built beneath all load-bearing walls, their depth determined by ground conditions.
Suspended concrete pot-and-beam floor. Suspended concrete floors can offer better insulation and allow speedier and drier construction than ground-bearing floors, but loading limits are more restricted. The underfloor void is typically ventilated by means of airbricks.
Suspended timber floor. Rigidity is provided by a herringbone strutting and lateral-restraint straps.
Building Construction (3 of 4)
Materials
Over the long history of building construction, there has been a steady substitution of man-made materials for natural ones. Brick, concrete and steel have largely replaced natural stone, such as granite and sandstone, as the latter require expensive skilled labor both in preparation and in assembly. In the same way, thatch and slate have given way to tile for roofing and cladding.
Although wood is still widely used for construction purposes, it too is increasingly being replaced by cheaper composite materials such as plywood (glued layers of wood) and particle board (wood and resin). Concrete and steel are now used for many building purposes, while synthetic materials such as PVC are becoming ever more common in non-structural applications.
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Building Construction (page 3)
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Window. Weather-proofing is provided by mastic sealing at joints between wood and masonry and by a damp-proof course (DPC). Any water entering the wall cavity above the window is channeled outside via weephole located over a specifically profiled lintel. Double-glazed units are generally fitted to reduce heat loss.
Flat roof. Insulation is placed over the roofing felt, to minimize deterioration of the felt caused by changes in external temperature.
Building Construction (4 of 4)
New technology
In recent years building innovation has centered around the use of new materials and the potential for saving energy by means of refined insulation and ventilation techniques. The dome has also been resurrected as a means of covering the greatest area at the least cost. The stressed-skin dome, in which thin aluminum is stretched over a ribbed framework to form a combined curtain wall and roof, has been successful in specialized uses. In a refined version known as the geodesic dome, the somewhat heavy ribs are re placed by metal tubing in the form of linked hexagons and triangles.
Another trend is towards the development of tensile structures, in which the roof is supported by means of cables stretched from pylons. This frees the space beneath the roof from any supporting structure, thereby increasing the usable area. The most notable application is in new sports stadiums, such as the Munich Olympic Stadium.
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Civil Engineering (page 1)
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Urban expressway in Ludwigshafen, Germany. Because it is impractical to drive urban expressways through existing cities at ground level, they are often built as elevated structures or in tunnels.
Civil Engineering (1 of 5)
In its aims, civil engineering is one of the most ancient of human activities: it is concerned with altering the natural environment for the greater convenience of mankind. It embraces the design and building of major structures and systems, usually concerned with transport: roads and railways, bridges, canals and tunnels, harbors and airports.
The first person to call himself a civil engineer - as distinct from a military engineer - is thought to have been John Smeaton (1724-92), designer of the Eddystone Light- house (1759) in England.
Although there were highway links in Mesopotamia from as early as 3500 BC, the Romans were probably the first road-builders with fixed engineering standards. At the peak of the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD, Rome had road connections totaling about 85 000 km (53 000 mi).
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p340-2
Civil Engineering (2 of 5)
Roads
Roman roads were constructed with a deep stone surface for stability and load-bearing. They had straight alignments and therefore were often hilly. The Roman roads remained the main arteries of European transport for many centuries, and even today many roads follow the Roman routes. New roads were generally of inferior quality, and the achievements of Roman builders were largely unsurpassed until the resurgence of road-building in the 18th century.
The 18th-century engineers, with horse-drawn coaches in mind, preferred to curve their roads to avoid hills. The road surface was regarded as merely a face to absorb wear, the load-bearing strength being obtained from a properly prepared and well-drained foundation. The Scottish engineer John McAdam (1756-1836) typically used a surface layer of only 5 cm (2 in), composed of crushed stone compacted with a mixture of stone dust and water, and then rolled. McAdam's later roads were surfaced with a layer of tarmacadam (or tarmac) - hot tar on which a layer of stone chips were laid. Roads of this kind were known as flexible pavements .
By the early 19th century - the start of the railway age - men such as John McAdam and Thomas Telford had created a British road network totaling some 200 000 km (125 000 mi), of which about one sixth was turnpikes (privately owned toll roads). In the first half of the 19th century many roads in the USA were built to the new standards, of which the National Pike from West Virginia to Illinois was perhaps the most notable.
In the 20th century the ever-increasing use of motor vehicles threatened to break up roads built to 19th-century standards, so new techniques had to be developed. On routes with heavy traffic, flexible pavements were replaced by rigid pavements, in which the top layer was concrete, 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in) thick, laid on a prepared bed. Nowadays steel bars are laid within the concrete. This not only restrains shrinkage during setting but also reduces expansion in warm weather. As a result it is possible to lay long slabs without danger of cracking.
The demands of heavy traffic led to the concept of high-speed, long-distance roads, with access or slip lanes spaced widely apart. The US Bronx River Parkway of 1925 was followed by several variants - Mussolini's autostradas, Hitler's autobahns, and the Pan American Highway. Such roads - especially the intercity autobahns with their separate multilane carriageways for each direction - were the predecessors of today's motorways.
* POWER 2
* BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* RAILWAYS
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Civil Engineering (page 2)
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p340-3
Civil Engineering (3 of 5)
Bridges
The development of the arched bridge in Roman times marked the beginning of scientific bridge-building; hitherto, bridges had generally been crossings in the form of felled trees or flat stone blocks. Absorbing the load by compression, arched bridges and viaducts are very strong. They were usually built of stone, but brick and timber were also used. A fine early example is at Alcantara in Spain, built of granite by the Romans in AD 105 to span the River Tagus. In modern times, metal and concrete arched bridges have been constructed. The first significant metal bridge, built of cast iron in 1779, still stands at Ironbridge in England.
Steel, with its superior strength-to-weight ratio, soon replaced iron in metal bridgework. In the railway age the truss (or girder) bridge became popular. Built of wood or metal, the truss beam consists of upper and lower horizontal booms joined by vertical or inclined members. The truss thus formed is designed to resist the three forces of tension, compression and shear.
The suspension bridge has a deck supported by suspenders that drop from one or more overhead cables. It requires strong anchorage at each end to resist the inward tension of the cables, and the deck is strengthened to control distortion by moving loads or high winds. Such bridges are nevertheless lightweight, and therefore the most suitable for very long spans. The Clifton Suspension Bridge, designed by the English engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-59) to span the Avon Gorge in England, is famous both for its beautiful setting and for its elegant design. The 1980 Humber Estuary Bridge in England has the longest span of any suspension bridge at 1410 m (4626 ft).
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* RAILWAYS
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Outline
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Civil Engineering (4 of 5)
Cantilever bridges, such as the 1889 Forth rail bridge in Scotland, exploit the potential of steel construction to produce a wide clear water space. The spans have a central supporting pier and meet in mid-stream. The downward thrust where the spans meet is countered by firm anchorage of the spans at their other ends. Although the suspension bridge can span a wider gap, the cantilever offers better stability, which was important for 19th-century railway-builders. The world's longest cantilever span - 549 m (1800 ft) - is that of the Quebec rail bridge in Canada, constructed in 1918.
In the 20th century, new forms of construction have been facilitated by the use of prestressed concrete - concrete surrounding tensioned steel cables that counter the stresses that occur under load. The box girder - a massive hollow box-shaped girder, which is both strong and light - has become a key component of concrete bridges.
Navigational engineering
The Pharos lighthouse, built at Alexandria in Egypt in about 280 BC and still standing until the 14th century, testifies to the antiquity of navigational engineering. Canals also have a long history, although it was not until the invention of the miter gate in the 16th century that extensive canal-building was undertaken. The miter gate, formed by two leaves meeting at an angle and pointing upstream, greatly simplified the construction of locks, which are used where canals pass over rising ground. In the 19th century, inland waterways suffered from railway competition, but canals for ocean-going ships remained practicable, and the Suez Canal of 1869 and the Panama Canal of 1914 shortened key shipping routes.
Tunnels
Tunnel-building was developed in the 18th century to enable canals to penetrate hills, and the same techniques were exploited by the 19th-century railway-builders. Tunnels through hard rock could be unlined, but in soft or moist ground millions of bricks were used as lining. The world's largest tunnel is the Seikan railway tunnel in Japan (1985), which is 54 km (33 mi) long. This is about 4 km longer than the projected length of the Angle-French Channel Tunnel (also an underwater rail link), work on which began in 1987.
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Civil Engineering (page 4)
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Civil Engineering (page 5)
ftsTitle
The Thames Barrier at Woolwich, London, is the world's largest tidal barrier. Opened in 1984 to protect the city from flooding, the barrier consists of nine massive concrete piers running in line from bank to bank. The wider central gaps in the barrier, each spanning 61 m (200 ft), are closed by specially designed 'rising-sector' gates. When open, these gates sit in curved concrete sills on the river bed; when required to block the tide, they are rocked into a vertical position.
Civil Engineering (5 of 5)
Dams, initially used for flood control and water storage, are of great antiquity. The crescent (horizontally arched) dam, which first appeared in the Byzantine Empire in the 6th century AD, enabled a much greater weight of water to be held than was possible with earlier constructions. Correct judgment of underlying rock strata is as important as good design, and a number of catastrophic dam failures have occurred because the foundations proved inadequate in the long term. Concrete is now the preferred material for dam-construction, but earth, rock, stone and brick have been used in the past.
THOMAS TELFORD
The Scotsman Thomas Telford (1757-1834) trained as a stonemason but went on to become one of the most celebrated civil engineers. The peak of his career was reached in the early 19th century, when he built roads, bridges, canals and harbors. His roads were noted for their level alignments. The lower course was made up of hand-placed stone, to a depth of 18 cm (7 in). The upper course was the same depth, but constructed of broken hardstone. His roads were finished with a 25 mm (1 in) layer of gravel, and would typically measure
5.5 m (18 ft) in width. The London-to-Holyhead road, including the famous suspension bridge over the Menai Strait (1825), was regarded as his masterpiece.
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ftsTitleOverride
Ships 1: Development (page 1)
ftsTitle
The ancient Greek trireme marked the ultimate development of the Mediterranean galley, its three tiers of rowers giving it unsurpassed speed.
Ships (1 of 6)
1. Development
The basic design of ships has changed little over the past 3500 years. The Egyptians, Phoenicians and Greeks in the Mediterranean, and the Chinese in the East, built large fleets for trade, exploration and war; and from these emerged the ancestors of the Arab dhow, the Chinese junk and other types of craft.
The differing needs of commerce and warfare soon created two distinct types of ship. Warships were designed with speed and maneuverability in mind, and thus tended to have long, narrow hulls and to be oar-powered. The oared fighting ship, or galley, with its lateen-rigged (i.e. triangular) sail was supreme in Mediterranean sea warfare from the time of the Phoenicians. Some had a single bank of oars but others two or three (these were known as biremes and triemes respectively). The Phoenicians generally used two banks, but the Greeks, and later the Romans, favored three. Medieval galleys had single banks of long oars with wide outriggers. For trading vessels, on the other hand, carrying capacity was the major consideration, so they were generally shorter and broader than warships, and relied mainly on sails.
The longship and the cog
Sometime in the 7th or 8th centuries AD a new form of construction appeared in Northern Europe - the Viking longship. The bow and stern were formed nearly at right angles to the keel, and the hull planking tapered to form distinct stem- and stern pieces. Although relying upon oars for fighting, the longship had a much larger and efficient sail than the galley, the longer keel and pointed ends providing a more stable and efficient sailing form. The longship was an awesome raiding craft, faster and more seaworthy than the Mediterranean galley, and enabled the Vikings to sail as far as North America. Longships based on the Viking design were used in the Norman invasion of England in 1066.
The rise of the Hanseatic League (an association of northern German trading towns) in the 14th century led to the development of the Hansa cog. This broad, sturdy vessel, typically about 30 m (100 ft) long, had a good cargo-carrying capacity. It had a square sail on a single mast and built-up 'castles' at the stem and stern.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Encyclopedia
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Ships 1: Development (page 2)
ftsTitle
The carrack of the 15th century, similar to Columbus's ship the Santa Maria. Columbus also sailed with the caravels Pinta and Nina. Caravels are even smaller ships with lateen rigs (i.e. triangular sails).
Ships (2 of 6)
1. Development
The evolution of the sailing ship
Early ships were maneuvered by means of a steering oar or paddle on the quarter (i.e. the side near the stern). Between 1200 and 1500 the gradual replacement of the steering oar by the wooden rudder brought about an enormous improvement in ship-handling. As ships grew larger the single mast gave way to two, three or even four masts. These features were incorporated in the Mediterranean carrack, which became the standard large ship in the 15th and 16th centuries.
A smaller version of the carrack, the caravel, was used along with the carrack by the Spanish and Portuguese to make their epic voyages of discovery. The caravel was easy to handle and large enough for ocean voyages, yet small enough to be rowed if there was no wind.
During the 15th century the warship also grew much bigger. Ships with a displacement of 250 tons at the beginning of the century had been replaced by ships of 1000 tons or more by 1500. Guns were used at sea in English men o' war from about 1340 and many of the Spanish galleys at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 carried heavy armaments. Gunports were provided in French and Spanish ships before 1500.
The huge expansion of the known world in the 16th century had a lasting effect on the ships of the trading nations. In Northern Europe the cog was expanded, while Spain and Portugal continued to develop the carrack. By the time England faced the Spanish Armada in 1588, galleons were the new model of fighting ship on both sides. But English shipwrights favored low-charged (low-sided) ships, while the Spanish clung to the high-charged carrack hull.
The restored ship of the line, HMS Victory. These ships of the late 18th and early 19th centuries evolved from the galleons of the 16th century, but had heavier timbers to allow bigger and more numerous guns to be carried.
Ships (3 of 6)
1. Development
During the 17th and 18th centuries the warship developed into a vessel of considerable strength, with massive double-planked sides. Under the rating system that evolved, only 1st to 3rd rates, mounting at least 64 heavy cannon, were designated as 'ships of the line'. Their purpose was to fight in the great sea battles. Smaller ships, the 4th, 5th and 6th rates, were for 'cruising' or independent operations; 5th and 6th rates were known as frigates and sloops respectively.
Merchantmen were built on broadly similar lines, but devoted internal space to cargo rather than weapons. Speed was not crucial, but small vessels adopted improvements to rigging to save manpower. Only the clipper used a finer form, sacrificing cargo space to speed in order to dominate trade in perishable commodities such as tea. Their 19th-century heyday was brief, however, as their huge spread of canvas required large crews.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Outline
Encyclopedia
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Ships 1: Development (page 4)
ftsTitle
The steam ironclad, HMS Warrior, next to an older wooden ship of the line. From the 1860s auxillary sailing rig was still carried on steam ships, but by the end of the 19th century, as steam engines became more reliable, sails were finally dispensed with.
Ships (4 of 6)
1. Development
The age of steam
With the end of the long military struggle between Britain and France in 1815, designers turned their attention to ways of improving propulsion and hulls. Mechanical means of driving ships had been talked about for centuries, but it was the invention of an efficient steam engine towards the end of the 18th century that made major improvements possible.
A small paddle steamer briefly sailed on the River Saone in France in 1783, and another on the Delaware River in the USA in 1786. The first practical and commercially successful steamer, however, was the Charlotte Dundas, which ran on the Forth and Clyde Canal in Scotland in 1802. Other inventors pressed on with designs, and by 1816 there was a service running across the English Channel. In 1821 the Royal Navy ordered its first class of paddle steamers for auxiliary missions, such as towing ships of the line. Not being dependent on the strength and direction of the wind, steam tugs made movement in restricted areas easier and safer. Steam also meant that time schedules could be maintained, which was important on long voyages. In 1838 the Sirius and the Great Western (the latter designed by Brunel) crossed the Atlantic, proving that steam power on its own was also suitable for long voyages.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
Encyclopedia
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Ships 1: Development (page 5)
ftsTitle
The battleship HMS Dreadnought was the first large ship to use the Parsons steam turbine. The Dreadnought gave its name to a class of battleships carrying ten 12-inch guns, and which were faster than any other large warship. The race among the European powers to build such ships reached a climax in World War I.
Ships (5 of 6)
1. Development
Iron hulls and the screw propeller
The introduction of steam put excessive weight into wooden hulls that were already reaching their maximum size, with warships approaching 7000 tons. An early precaution was to stiffen hulls with iron bracing, and it was not long before all-iron hulls were proposed. The first iron steamer operated successfully from 1820, and several small warships followed.
Navies were reluctant, however, to build large warships with iron hulls and paddle engines. The iron hull was found to affect the compass on long voyages, and tests in the 1840s showed that solid shot would fracture on impact with wrought iron, causing lethal splinters.
As well as being inefficient, the paddle wheel - in naval contexts - restricted armament and was vulnerable to enemy shot. These drawbacks were overcome by the invention in 1836 of the screw propeller, credit for which is shared by the Swedish-American John Ericcson and by the Englishman Francis Pettit-Smith. After a series of experiments this new method of propulsion gained widespread approval, with the Royal Navy ordering its first screw steamer (HMS Rattler) in 1840, and Brunel redesigning the SS Great Britain for screw propulsion later that same year. The Royal Navy initiated a major program to convert sailing ships of the line to steam, cutting ships in two to provide volume for coal bunkers, boilers and engines. But iron for large warships did not find favor until the Crimean War (1853-56), when the threat from explosive shells forced the British and French to build armor-plated 'floating batteries'. This led to a desire to apply armor to a line-of-battle ship. The French built the Gloire, which was a wooden ship covered in armor. The British then built the much superior HMS Warrior, which had an iron hull with armor added.
In the ensuing arms race, heavily armored ships, known as ironclads, became the focus of ship technology. Such ironclads saw action in the US Civil War. Until the end of the 19th century, the use of heavier and heavier armor-plating was matched by the ever-increasing power of naval guns, some in turret mountings. HMS Inflexible, completed in 1881, had four 80-ton guns in twin turrets, and was also equipped with torpedo tubes and even electric lighting. Great Britain, with ample supplies of iron and coal, came to dominate world shipbuilding in a way that had not been possible when wood was the standard material. From being a large-scale operator of merchant ships, Britain became shipbuilder to the world.
As steam engines became more reliable, auxiliary sailing rig became redundant, and by 1900 sail-and-steam ships were a thing of the past. Cheap steel was now available and had replaced wrought iron.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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p342-6
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Ships 1: Development (page 6)
ftsTitle
Transatlantic liner Cunard. The first liners ran a fast, dependable and luxurious service in the first half of the 20th century. Liners such as the Cunard are now largely used for cruises, the transatlantic route having been taken over by airlines.
Ships (6 of 6)
1. Development
20th-century developments
Brunel's Great Eastern (1858) - which was over 200 m (nearly 700 ft) long - was ahead of its time, but it proved that there was no practical limit to the size of iron ships. By the early years of the 20th century, liners were plying a regular transatlantic trade. When it sank after hitting an iceberg on its maiden voyage in 1912, the Titanic was setting new standards for luxury and comfort.
By the turn of the century the demand for higher speeds, both in passenger liners and warships, forced engineers to look for an alternative to the reciprocating steam engine. The Parsons steam turbine offered reduced vibration at maximum power, and after experiments in destroyers, the Royal Navy adopted steam turbines for the revolutionary battleship Dreadnought (1905). Shortly afterwards the Cunard Line made a similar decision for its new liners.
Between 1900 and World War II the picture was one of steady development to meet changing needs and to take advantage of changing technology. Amongst merchant ships there was the growth of transatlantic liners with ever-increasing size, speed and standards of comfort culminating in the Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth. Oil tankers grew in size and number as the demands of industry and transport for oil increased. The diesel engine was widely adopted as a cheap propulsion unit for merchant ships and minor naval craft. Larger warships and the large liners retained their steam turbines, but with engineering advances providing increased power in less space.
In the military field the early years were dominated by the introduction of HMS Dreadnought , the first all-large-gun fast battleship. It gave its name to a type of battleship, and prior to World War I the major naval powers embarked upon building numbers of them to maintain the credibility of their fleets. Advances in technology brought the submarine from a virtual toy to become a major factor in both World Wars. Armed with torpedoes it became a lethal weapon system and its covert operations were aided in World War II by the 'snort mast' which enabled it to run its diesels at periscope depth. Destroyers, frigates and corvettes were developed to combat the submarine, using sonar to detect it and weapons such as the depth charge to attack it.
The other major change came about with the introduction of aircraft. Special ships were designed to carry and operate them and new weapons developed to combat them. The aircraft carrier started as a primitive auxiliary vessel in World War I, but with the destruction of the US Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor in 1941 by Japanese carrier-borne aircraft, the aircraft carrier came to displace the battleship.
* ENGINES
* MODERN SHIPPING
* ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE
* THE INVASIONS (VIKINGS)
* THE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY
* EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES
* THE INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS
* THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC WARS
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 1)
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The LNG carrier Khannar. LNG (liquefied natural gas) carriers have special insulated tanks in which the gas is carried under pressure and at low temperature (-100 degC / -148 degF).
Ships (1 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Over the last 50 years the design of commercial and naval ships has undergone radical changes both as a result of advances in technology and as a response to changing economic pressures and military threats. In all types of ship automation has helped to reduce crew size and the cost of construction and operation. In spite of competition from the air, ships still carry the great majority of cargoes; and although the great transatlantic liners have disappeared, cruise ships and ferries flourish. In the military field, the need to cope with high-speed missiles - both in attack and defense - has meant that modern warships are now equipped with complex electronic and computer systems.
Advances in technology have both posed threats and provided opportunities to commercial shipping. Since World War II the main influences have been the growth in air travel, the tremendous increase in demands for energy, the need to transport large volumes of cargo around the world, and the increase in leisure time among the affluent societies of the West.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* SEEING THE INVISIBLE
* SHIPS 1: DEVELOPMENT
* WEAPONRY
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Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 2)
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Large hovercraft, such as this, are used to ferry passengers and cars over relatively short distances, such as across the English Channel.
Ships (2 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Passenger shipping
The growth of relatively cheap air travel has meant that virtually all long-distance passenger transport is now by air. After World War II a few large liners such as the Queen Elizabeth II were built, but as the greater speed and convenience of air travel became apparent, liners were either scrapped or converted to cruise ships or floating hotels. However, on shorter sea crossings, car and passenger ferries have expanded their activities to cope with the growth of demand for holidays abroad. Partly for economic reasons and partly in order to win customers, ferries have grown in size and speed, with particular attention being paid to on-board amenities and provision for fast boarding and unloading. The roll-on/roll-off design is now common. On some routes, the greater speed of the hovercraft has made it attractive to travelers.
With increasing leisure time, a demand has grown for sea cruises. Initially converted liners were used, but now most ships are specifically designed for the cruising trade. Visits are made to a number of ports where passengers can disembark for excursions to places of interest. Often the ship travels from port to port over night, so the passenger has the advantages of a traveling hotel without the need to pack and unpack. Larger cruise liners can carry some 3000 people in relative luxury and with all facilities - such as swimming pools and dance halls - on board.
Cross-Channel ferries provide a useful service, carrying vehicles as well as passengers. However, doubts about the safety of certain kinds of roll-on, roll-off ferries have been voiced, especially since the sinking of the Estonia in 1994.
Ships (3 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Cargo shipping
The rapid growth in demand for energy has meant that large volumes of oil need to be shipped around the world. To keep the price per ton of oil as low as possible, the size of tankers has grown dramatically. Whereas before 1956 there were no tankers larger than 50 000 tons, ships of 100 000 tons were built in the 1960s. There are now Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC) of between 200 000 to 400 000 tons and Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC) of more than 400 000 tons. To transport natural gas to where it is needed has led to the development of the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carrier.
While the extraction of gas and oil from shallow-water off-shore sites had long been carried out, the need for more oil caused oil companies to look further afield to deeper, more exposed areas, such as the North Sea In order to remain stationary while drilling, drilling ships with dynamic position control systems were required, as were saturated diving systems, production rigs and supply vessels of specialized design.
Bulk carriage of grain and metal ores was influenced by the need to keep transport as cheap as possible, with minimum manpower and minimum time in port. Bulk carriers therefore grew in the same way as tankers, and like them had machinery and accommodation aft with holds or tanks forward. Some large ships are designed to be able to take different cargoes (say oil or ore) on different occasions. Load distribution is then important to ensure that the strength limits of the hull are not exceeded.
Other cargoes carried in bulk bring their own problems. For instance, the bulk movement of cars has been facilitated by the use of roll-on/roll-off ships, a concept that has also found favor in large car ferries. For general cargoes, there is the same need to reduce time of loading and off-loading in order to maximize the use of the ships. This need led to the development of container ships, which carry a large number of 'standard' containers stacked in special holds. As with bulk carriers, the machinery and accommodation is grouped aft, with the hold forward. Special facilities are needed at the docks to load and unload, this being more economical than providing such facilities on each ship. The ship in this case is only one element in an integrated transport system. Containers can be loaded at the factory or source point and then carried by road and/or rail to the docks. Large ships, typically around 60 000 tons, carry the containers between major ports, where they are transferred to road, rail or to smaller vessels for transfer to smaller ports or to their final destination.
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* WEAPONRY
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Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 4)
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The USS Carl Vinson. This nuclear-powered American carrier is here seen with F-14 Tomcats and an E-2 Hawkeye (to starboard) parked on the stern. The angled flight deck, arresting gear and four steam catapults facilitate the operation of high-performance aircraft with full supporting facilities on board.
Ships (4 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
Warship defenses
The design of warships is dictated both by the need to carry out certain types of operation and by the need to counter the threat posed by an enemy. During World War II the pace of change accelerated and has continued to do so since. With developments in materials, electronics and computers, the growing complexity of the threats posed has been matched by the sophisticated means used to combat them.
One example is the threat posed by mines, which can be laid covertly, often before hostilities begin, to be activated at a later date. World War II saw the appearance of influence mines, which are triggered by the magnetic, acoustic and/or pressure 'signature' of the target. The result of the development of mines and homing weapons (such as missiles and torpedoes, which use similar sensor devices) is that great emphasis has been placed on reducing ship signatures and thus their susceptibility to attack. The radar reflection of modern warships is reduced in a variety of ways: special materials are used, and much attention is paid to shaping and to minimizing the above-water profile. The magnetic signature of a ship can be significantly reduced by degaussing, a process in which special equipment is used to produce an opposing magnetic field. The acoustic signature can be reduced by specially designed propulsion units and by isolating noise sources within the ship. Finally, the susceptibility to infrared detection can be decreased by reducing hot spots within the ship.
Special vessels have also been developed to hunt out mines that cannot be swept. The mines are then destroyed by charges placed close to them by small remotely operated vehicles. To ensure that the magnetic signature of mine-countermeasures vessels is minimized, their hulls are now made of glass-reinforced plastic.
As well as reducing signatures, other defenses include the use of jamming to confuse enemy detection or homing systems, the use of decoys to seduce homing weapons away from their target, and 'hard-kill' weapons to destroy the enemy weapon before impact.
It is not always possible to prevent weapon hits, and ships must be robust enough to withstand some damage and still remain effective fighting units. Various means of reducing vulnerability include protective plating against splinters, duplication of important systems, subdivision of the ship, and limiting the area of the ship over which a hit can put any particular system out of action.
Modern battle fleets
A modern battle fleet is provided with a 'layered' defense. Aircraft carriers can deploy early-warning aircraft and intercept enemy aircraft at a distance with their fighters. The introduction of take-off ramps, angled flight decks, steam catapults and deck landing aids have all helped the carrier to operate high-performance aircraft. Carriers, destroyers and frigates can also deploy helicopters to combat submarines at a distance. In effect, aircraft extend the eyes, ears and weapon radius of the fleet. The next layer of defense is provided by long-range missile systems that can defend a given area of sea. The inner ring is a self-defense capability provided by close-range weapons.
Modern fleets also need to be able to combine with land forces in amphibious operations. A variety of specialized ships have been developed for such operations. Small craft are used to land men, tanks and equipment on exposed beaches. Often the small craft are carried to the vicinity of the beach by mother ships, sometimes in the form of mobile floating docks. The need to support large fleets at great distances from base led to the 'fleet train', comprising tankers, supply ships and repair ships. Systems have been developed to enable solids and liquids to be transferred while the ships are moving.
Thus a modern navy is likely to comprise carriers, guided-missile ships of various sizes, mine-countermeasure ships, anti-submarine vessels, amphibious forces and support ships. All are provided with increasingly complex electronics, rely heavily on computer-based systems and require highly trained crews to operate them.
It is important that these very expensive ships are available for duty for as much of the time as possible. Special paint systems reduce the need to dock, while major items of equipment are replaced rather than repaired in situ. Thus the gas turbines in many modern warships are readily replaced through the associated ducting, while diesel engines, air-conditioning plants and pumps are provided with special removal routes.
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Ships 2: The Modern Ship (page 5)
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The French nuclear submarine, Emeraude, can stay underwater for weeks at a time. Like other nuclear submarines, it uses the heat from its reactor to provide steam for propulsion and to generate electricity. Air for breathing is continuously purified by machinery, and the oxygen content is replenished from sea water.
Ships (5 of 5)
2. Modern Shipping
SPECIAL SHIP TYPES
A number of special ship types have evolved either to meet a new demand or to utilize some advance in technology. Twin hulls provide a large deck area together with great stability. This is useful for helicopter operation, for towing a variety of hydrographic equipment, or as a base for operating small submersibles or diving bells. When a large part of the hull is kept well below the sea surface, the ship is known as a semi-submersible. Such vessels are much less affected by waves than conventional hulls and are therefore suitable for oil exploration. A variant of this, which is of interest in military and hydrographic fields, is the small waterplane area twin hull (SWATH) ship. The small waterplane means a much reduced response to surface waves and hence small ship motion.
The hydrofoil has been in existence for many years. It uses fins to create sufficient hydrodynamic lift to raise the hull clear of the water. Hydrofoils are suitable for small high-speed ferries, as they provide a comfortable ride in moderate sea conditions. The hovercraft is also used for ferries.
The hull is carried on an air cushion, and in some variants there are no elements of the ship in the water. Such craft can run over flat areas of land such as mud banks and beaches as easily as they can over water. In other variants the craft has sidewalls that remain partly submerged and an underwater propulsor. These are not amphibious.
SUBMARINES
The advent of space satellites means that an enemy is likely to know the disposition of all major surface units. This has increased the value of the submarine, which is much more difficult to detect. Nuclear power has enabled submarines to remain submerged for long periods, and, because of their low vulnerability, such vessels provide effective launch vehicles for nuclear missiles
The Stockton and Darlington Railway in use for the first time in 1825. Designed by George Stephenson, it was the first public railway to use steam locomotives and the first to carry both freight and passengers. Initially steam traction was used for goods trains only, but from 1830 the use of locomotives was extended to passenger services, which had previously been provided by carriages drawn along the tracks by horses.
Railways (1 of 5)
The ancient Babylonians and Greeks laid short lines of grooved stones, while in medieval Europe horse-drawn wagons running on wooden planks were occasionally used in mining. But railways as we know them resulted from the combination of two elements - mechanical traction, provided by the steam engine and the flanged metal wheel running on metal rails.
Being both a stimulus and a result of the Industrial Revolution, railways have had an enormous social and economic impact over the last 175 years. Although railways have provided a public service for most of their history, it was in fact from old horse-drawn industrial lines used in the British coal fields that the modern railway developed.
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Railways (2 of 5)
The first steam railways
In 1812 steam locomotives began regular service in England on the industrial Middleton Railway near Leeds, and in 1814 the English engineer George Stephenson introduced his first steam locomotive at the Killingworth Colliery, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Stephenson went on to complete the Stockton & Darlington Railway, the first public steam line, in 1825. In 1830 the first intercity railway, the Liverpool & Manchester, was opened, and in the same year the initial length of the first US public steam line, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, was completed.
Many continental European countries built their first railways in the 1830s, often using Stephenson locomotives. Canada built a line in the same decade, but more distant parts of the British Empire waited longer, with Australia's first line opening in 1854, South Africa's in 1860, and New Zealand's in 1863.
In Europe and North America the great period of railway building was the second half of the 19th century. The peak British mileage of 32 908 km (20 449 mi) was reached in 1931, but 90% of that had been built before 1900. The US peak mileage was reached in 1916, at 408 762 km (254 000 mi). In developed countries competition from road transport has since caused many lines to close, but elsewhere in the world new railways are still being built.
Nationwide systems
Creating national railway networks requires substantial engineering works to overcome water or mountain barriers. In Britain the Severn Tunnel (1886) and Forth Bridge (1890) were two outstanding achievements. British engineers gave high priority to the avoidance of steep gradients, and therefore made great use of tunnels and viaducts. They often worked at the very limit of their technical knowledge - sometimes with catastrophic consequences, as when the Tay Bridge collapsed in a gale in 1879 while a train was crossing: all 73 passengers and the crew of 5 were drowned.
In North America the Rockies presented a difficult obstacle to several lines, including the first US transcontinental, the Union Pacific-Central Pacific line (1869) from Nebraska to California. The Canadian Pacific, Canada's first transcontinental (1887), running from Montreal to Vancouver, used a series of spiraling tunnels to cross the Rockies. Russia's Trans-Siberian (1904) from the Urals to the Pacific had to make an expensive detour to pass Lake Baikal, while the Trans-Australian Railway (1917) faced a problem of a different kind in the arid Nullarbor Plain, over which a dead straight line was driven for 478 km (297 mi).
Outside North America, most private railways were eventually taken into state ownership. In 1948 British Railways (later British Rail) took over the four big companies that had owned the British system since 1923.
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Railways (page 2)
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Railways (3 of 5)
Technical progress
Nineteenth-century innovations included automatic train brakes controlled from the locomotive and, in passenger service, corridor trains with toilet and dining facilities, steam heating, and electric lighting. Luxury trains, including sleeping cars with a high degree of personal service, have been successfully operated, mainly by the Pullman company in the USA and Wagons-Lits in Europe.
In the 20th century the steam locomotive was gradually replaced by electric and diesel traction. Electrification enabled trains to run more cheaply, more cleanly, and in practice more often, while the greater power of electric locomotives allowed heavier trains and higher speeds. Diesel traction was particularly advantageous on lines where traffic was not heavy enough to justify the cost of electrification.
To keep up with the image created by aircraft and racing cars, railways introduced streamlined trains - or 'streamliners' - in the 1930s, with trains such as the Silver Jubilee in England averaging 112 km/h (70 mph) or more. In the USA many of the streamliners were diesel-powered.
In some countries, including Britain but not the USA, freight traffic has diminished since the 1920s. Freight trains tended to become faster and more specialized. 'Piggyback' (road trailers carried on flatcars) and removable containers were widely used from the 1950s to combine the long-haul advantage of the train with the door-to-door advantage of the motor vehicle.
In 1964 high-speed trains, running on special track, appeared in Japan. The French TGV service between Paris and Lyon began in 1981, and has running speeds of up to 270 km/h (168 mph). In Britain the 200 km/h (125 mph) High-Speed Train (HST) differs from the Japanese and French examples in that it is diesel, not electric, and runs on existing track. Maglev (magnetic levitation) trains, which dispense with the steel rail and flanged wheel, became technically feasible in the 1970s, but seem unlikely (at least in the short term) to prove economic except for specialized short-haul transit.
Gauge
The gauge of a railway track - the distance between the two rails - is partly a matter of convention but can also be varied to suit particular purposes. The gauge used by Stephenson - 1435 mm (4 ft 8 1/2 in) - became known as standard gauge, and has been used for more than half of the railway track ever laid. The advantage of narrow gauge is that it is cheaper to build, especially in hilly terrain, and allows the use of smaller and lighter rolling stock, which is cheaper to operate. Broad gauge, on the other hand, is suitable for larger rolling stock and generally allows higher running speeds, because of greater lateral stability.
The inconvenience of different gauges is exemplified by Australia, where Victoria and South Australia chose 1600 mm (5 ft 3 in), Western Australia and Queensland 1067 mm (3 ft 6 in), and New South Wales standard gauge. These gauges are still in use, but the mainland state capitals now have standard-gauge connections. Sometimes, to accommodate trains of different gauges, a third rail is laid to create mixed gauge.
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Railways (page 4)
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The Japanese bullet train. The Tokaido Shinkansen high-speed line, the first of the high-speed passenger trains, opened in 1964. On opening, it operated a regular service from Tokyo to Osaka at speeds over 160 km/h (100 mph). Other Shinkansen lines run services to major destinations all over Honshu and Kyushu.
Railways (4 of 5)
The impact of railways
Railways revolutionized economic and social life. They enabled industries to be located far from their fuel sources and to enjoy nationwide markets for their products. People could choose from a wider range of commodities and easily travel outside their own district for business and pleasure. The cheap mass movement of people and commodities that was now possible caught the popular imagination and encouraged new enterprise, thus changing static agrarian communities and nations into dynamic industrialized societies.
1804 Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) successfully operates his steam locomotive in South Wales.
1812 Matthew Murray (1765-1826) puts his steam cog locomotives into service at Middleton Colliery, Yorkshire.
1813 William Hedley (1779-1843) and Timothy Hackworth (1786-1850) build a smooth-wheeled steam locomotive for Wylam Colliery, Northumberland.
1814 George Stephenson (1781-1848) builds the Blecher, his first locomotive.
1827 Hackworth's Royal George is the first locomotive with six coupled wheels (to increase wheel-to-rail adhesion), and the first with cylinders driving direct to the wheels.
1829 At the Rainhill locomotive trials the Rocket, designed by Robert Stephenson (1803-59) and his father George, impresses the Liverpool & Manchester Railway management.
1897 The German Wilhelm Schmidt (1858-1924) introduces the first successful superheater, enhancing steam locomotive performance.
1900 Electrification of the Paris-Orluans line begins.
1913 A diesel rail car begins running successfully in Sweden.
1923 The American Locomotive Company introduces successful diesel-electric locomotives.
1932 The record-breaking diesel train Flying Hamburger begins running between Berlin and Hamburg.
1934 The Burlington Zephyr, the first diesel-electric streamliner, covers the 1626 km (1010 mi) from Denver to Chicago at an average speed of 125 km/h (77.6 mph).
1938 The British streamlined locomotive Mallard wins the all-time steam speed record by reaching 203 km/h (126 mph).
1958 A French electric locomotive reaches 331 km/h (206 mph).
1960 Regular mainline steam traction ends in the USA.
1968 Regular mainline steam traction ends in Britain.
1981 The French TGV reaches 380 km/h (236 mph) in trials.
FLOATING TRAINS
The friction between flanged metal wheels and steel track imposes an upper limit on the speeds that can be obtained by conventional trains. To overcome this barrier, experiments have been conducted with vehicles that are suspended over a guideway on a cushion' of air, but perhaps the most promising progress has been made with maglev (magnetic levitation) trains.
Maglev designs have been of two main types. The German Transrapid program has used an attractive' system, in which electromagnets in the wings of the train lie beneath the guideway and are drawn up towards the steel rail as the power is turned on. Meanwhile the Japanese have developed a repulsive' maglev, in which super conducting magnets in the guideway create a magnetic field of the same polarity as magnets set in the train itself; the train is thus levitated as the two fields repel one another.
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* THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
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Aircraft 1: Development (page 1)
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The British Aerospace Harrier is shown demonstrating its vertical take-off abilities. An extremely agile plane the Harrier excels in many aspects of modern Jet warfare.
Aircraft (1 of 12)
1. Development
Until the invention of the powered airplane, the only method of sustained ascending flight was by lighter-than-air aircraft - balloons and dirigibles. Balloons enabled pioneering aeronauts to undertake voyages across land and sea as early as 1784/5. By the middle of the next century, the dirigible (or airship) had arrived, bringing with it both a system of propulsion and a method of steering. The heyday of the airship came in the first three decades of the 20th century. During this time the airship was widely used in both commercial and military contexts. Its success was short-lived, however: hastened on by a series of horrific accidents, the eclipse of the airship by the airplane was complete by the late 1930s.
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Harrier vertical take-off abilities
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p348-2
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 2)
ftsTitle
A hydrogen-filled balloon in flight. Before the advent of the dirigible, balloons were put to a number of useful purposes. The military used them during the American Civil War and World War I. Scientist V.F. Hess went 5000 m (about 3 mi) high in a balloon to prove the existence of cosmic rays.
Aircraft (2 of 12)
1. Development
Balloons and dirigibles
Although the principle of the hot-air balloon had been successfully demonstrated at the beginning of the 18th century, the experiments of the French pioneers Joseph (1740-1810) and Jacques-Etienne (1745-99) Montgolfier are better remembered, as they finally led to the first manned flight. Following successful experiments with unmanned hot-air balloons earlier in the same year, on 19 September 1783 the Montgolfier brothers launched a balloon that safely carried the first airborne passengers - a cock, a duck and a sheep. Less than a month later, on 15 October, Franaois Pilatre de Rozier became the first person to ascend in a balloon, using a tethered Montgolfier hot-air balloon.
On 21 November, with the Marquis d'Arlandes, de Rozier also made the first free balloon flight, remaining airborne over Paris for about 25 minutes. Only a few days were to pass, however, before Jacques Charles and one of the Robert brothers flew a distance of about 43 km(27 mi) in a hydrogen balloon.
The unpredictable nature of ballooning soon led to attempts to design dirigibles. Dirigibles are airships (powered lighter-than-air aircraft) that can be guided or steered. Before long, dirigibles moved away from the spherical envelope typical of balloons, and some were of rigid structure. The first manned and powered dirigible was demonstrated by the Frenchman Henri Giffard (1825-82) in 1852. Starting from Paris on 24 September, Giffard flew about 27 km (17 mi), his craft being driven forward at an average speed of just 8 km/h (5 mph).
A name closely associated with dirigibles is the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838-1917), whose first craft, the LZ 1, made its maiden ascent on 2 July 1900. Zeppelins built for the German army and navy were used with considerable effect in World War I, with Zeppelin raids over Great Britain beginning in January 1915. Before the outbreak of war Zeppelins had also been used for the world's first commercial passenger service.
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p348-3
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 3)
ftsTitle
The first powered and controlled flight by an airplane: Wilbur Wright looks on as Orville pilots Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on 17 December 1903.
Aircraft (3 of 12)
1. Development
The early years of the airplane
The American pioneers Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-1948) Wright were the first to conduct a sustained flight with a man-carrying, powered and controllable heavier-than-air aircraft. On 17 December 1903 Orville made the first historic flight in their airplane Flyer - although the flight lasted only 12 seconds and covered just 36 m (120 ft). Two other flights were made that day, the longer of the two lasting 59 seconds and covering 260 m (852 ft).
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p348-4
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 4)
ftsTitle
Charles Lindbergh, the first man to make a non-stop solo crossing of the Atlantic, alongside Spirit of St Louis. His historic flight lasted 33 hours 39 minutes from take-off on 20 May 1927.
Aircraft (4 of 12)
1. Development
From about 1906 the Wright brothers gradually began to lose their almost total dominance over all other pioneer aviators. Successful trials were conducted in Europe at this time, and on 25 July 1909 the Frenchman Louis Bluriot (1872-1936) became the first man to fly an airplane across the English Channel. In the same year the British Short brothers set up the first airplane production line, constructing six Wright Model As before going on to their own designs.
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Aircraft 1: Development (page 5)
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The German airship Hindenburg, engulfed in flames as it approaches its moorings at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on 6 May 1937: the age of large passenger-carrying airships was over.
Aircraft (5 of 12)
1. Development
Military developments
World War I witnessed massive aircraft construction programs. Although air- frame design improved during these years, the most significant advances were in speed, lifting capability, and reliability, due to greatly improved engines. Well into the 1930s, open-cockpit biplanes with wire-and-strut bracing remained the most common airplane design. The 1930s saw aircraft with cantilever monoplane wings begin to take over, often with enclosed cockpits, retractable under-carriages, all-metal construction and heavier armament. Speeds also increased dramatically.
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p348-6
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Aircraft 1: Development (page 6)
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The Boeing Model 247, first flown in 1933, heralded the age of the modern airliner. The 247 was the first all-metal monoplane airliner with cantilever low-mounted wings and retractable undercarriage.
Aircraft (6 of 12)
1. Development
In 1944 Britain and Germany pioneered the introduction of gas-turbine engines (turbojets) to warplanes, with the Gloster Meteor and Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighters respectively. Although only slightly faster than piston-engined fighter planes at higher altitudes, the new jets were about 160 km/h (100 mph) faster at sea level. During the 1950s piston-engined warplanes were almost completely replaced by those powered by turbojets.
On 14 October 1947 the American Bell X-1 research aircraft flown by Captain Charles ('Chuck') Yeager became the first aircraft to fly faster than the speed of sound. The North American F-100 Super Sabre fighter introduced sustained supersonic capability in level flight to production aircraft during the 1950s. On 18 January 1957 three US Air Force eight-engined Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers completed the first ever non-stop round-the-world flight, giving a vivid demonstration that any target in the world was now within the range of nuclear or conventional weapons. The greatest advances since the 1970s have been in the field of aircraft electronics (avionics) and in the use of light composite materials for airframes.
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p348-7
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 1: Development (page 7)
ftsTitle
The Hughes H4 Hercules, the largest flying boat ever built, with a wingspan of 97.54 m (320 ft). By the time of its first and only flight in November 1947, the age of the flying boat was virtually over.
Aircraft (7 of 12)
1. Development
Commercial flying
Passenger, mail and freight services by airlines began in earnest immediately after World War I, often using ex-military pilots and aircraft. At the same time, many hazardous long flights were undertaken to prove routes and sometimes to win prizes. The first non-stop flight across the Atlantic was made on 14-15 June 1919, by the Englishmen Captain John Alcock (1892-1919) and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown (1886-1948) in a Vickers Vimy bomber. It was not until 1927, however, that the first solo crossing was made.
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Aircraft 1: Development (page 8)
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The Vought-Sikorsky VS-300, seen here piloted by designer Igor Sikorsky, was the first successful American helicopter. It made its maiden flight on 13 May 1940.
Aircraft (8 of 12)
1. Development
During the 1920s and 1930s large multi-engined flying boats were widely used for long-distance over-water services, but they rapidly declined with the development of long-range land planes just before and during World War II.
The Messerschmitt Me 262A-2a jet fighter-bomber. The German Me 262 and the British Gloster Meteor ushered in the age of the turbojet in July 1944.
Aircraft (9 of 12)
1. Development
The first scheduled passenger flight by an airliner with a turboprop engine - the British Vickers Viscount -was made in 1950. Turbojet power came to commercial aviation two years later, with another British airliner, the de Havilland Comet. The first American turbojet-powered airliner was the larger and commercially more successful Boeing 707, which began airline operation in 1958 on the route between New York and Paris. The Anglo-French Concorde was the world's first supersonic airliner, starting scheduled passenger flights in 1976.
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Aircraft 1: Development (page 10)
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Prototype de Havilland Comet. The Comet introduced turbojet power to commercial aviation in 1952.
Aircraft (10 of 12)
1. Development
Vertical flight
In 1907 the French Breguet-Richet Gyroplane 1 became the first helicopter to lift a man from the ground. It was not until the 1930s, however, that fully successful helicopters appeared. The most important of these were the French Breguet-Dorand Gyroplane Laboratoire, the German Focke-Wulf Fw 61, and the American Vought-Sikorsky VS-300. All three could fly well but had very limited lifting capacity. However, both the German and American types led to the development of better machines, which saw limited service during World War II. Wide scale military use of helicopters was first seen in the early 1950s, during the Korean War.
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Aircraft 1: Development (page 11)
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British Aerospace Harrier GR. Mk 3 (top): the Harrier, entering service in 1969, was the first operational airplane with the capacity to take off and land vertically.
Aircraft (11 of 12)
1. Development
Many forms of vertical take-off airplane have been designed and tested over the decades of aviation history. The world's first operational V/STOL (vertical/short take-off and landing) airplane was the Harrier, first built by Hawker Siddeley (now part of British Aerospace), which entered service with the Royal Air Force in 1969. This uses the thrust-vectoring technique, in which the direction of the engine's thrust can be altered to provide power for vertical and horizontal flight.
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p348-12
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Aircraft 1: Development (page 12)
ftsTitle
The Bell-Boeing Osprey prototype, first flown in March 1989, demonstrating the tilt-rotor concept.
Aircraft (12 of 12)
1. Development
The Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey combines the advantages of airplane and helicopter. First flown as a prototype in March 1989, it uses the tilt-rotor concept: engines driving large rotors are mounted at the tips of the wings to swivel upwards (vertical) in helicopter flight mode and swivel forward (horizontal) in airplane mode. Although less efficient than a simple airplane in cruising flight, the Osprey is vastly superior to a helicopter, being able to fly - for the same payload and fuel consumption - about three times as far in the same time.
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p350-1
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 1)
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This animation of a jet in flight shows movement and design elements.
Aircraft (1 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
The term 'aircraft' includes every man-made device that flies in the atmosphere. The most important group of aircraft, called aerodynes, are not naturally buoyant - they are heavier than air. Aerodynes obtain their lift in a variety of ways: by jet thrust; by means of rotating blades; or by means of fixed wings, with a separate propulsion system to make the wings move through the air.
A smaller group is the aerostats, which are naturally buoyant - they are lighter than air. Those without power are called balloons (gas-filled or hot-air), while those with propulsion and some means of steering are called airships or dirigibles.
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Jet in flight animation
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**++*
p350-2
Encyclopedia
Section
Aircraft (2 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
The principle of flight
When the weight of an aircraft (due to the force of gravity) is exceeded by the lift (the upward force created by the wings or by hot air or lighter-than-air gases), the aircraft will rise in the air. In the case of airplanes and gliders, lift is produced as a result of the characteristic profile - the airfoil section - of the wing. The wing is rounded and thicker at the front (the leading edge), and tapers away to a sharp edge at the back (the trailing edge).
Lift is created as the wings move through the air at speed and relies on the fact that air pressure drops as air speed increases. As air passes over the wing, it has to move further, and thus faster, over the more curved upper surface than the lower surface. This causes a considerable reduction in pressure above the wing, especially at the front, where the wing is thickest and the upper surface most sharply curved. Lift can be increased both by increasing the speed of airflow over the wing and by increasing the curvature of the upper wing surface.
Any aircraft with propulsion also experiences thrust - the resultant force pulling or pushing it through the air; and drag - the equal and opposite force caused by the resistance of the air to the frontal surfaces of the aircraft. Drag is effectively wasted energy, so the aim of aircraft designers is to reduce drag without sacrificing lift.
Gliders, lacking an independent source of propulsion, have to fly downhill from the moment they are cast off after take-off. The pilot thus seeks columns of rising warmer air, called thermals. Modern gliders are so efficient that they have climbed to nearly 15 000 m (49 200 ft) and flown 1460 km (907 mi).
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Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 2)
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p350-3
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Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 3)
ftsTitle
British Aerospace's active-control demonstrator seen flying with a stable RAF Tornado. The demonstrator is a modified SEPECAT Jaguar, deliberately destabilized by 10% by fitting wing leading-edge strakes and aft ballast.
Aircraft (3 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Aircraft stability
In the absence of other forces, an aircraft's center of gravity would have to be at the same point as its center of lift for the craft to remain in equilibrium. In practice, however, because of thrust and drag, nearly all airplanes are designed to be naturally stable in the longitudinal plane, but with the center of gravity ahead of the center of lift. This causes a downward movement of the nose, which is counteracted by a constant download on the horizontal tail. Any disturbance tending to tilt the aircraft nose-up or nose-down is countered automatically by the change in the angle of the wings and of the horizontal tail. Today, thanks to extremely fast computers, fighter planes can be deliberately made naturally unstable. This has two advantages: instead of a download the tailplane imparts an upload, thus helping the wing instead of fighting it; and as the fighter is always trying to depart from straight flight (restrained by computers that apply restoring forces 40 or more times per second), the aircraft can be made exceptionally agile.
To control an aircraft, the pilot must direct the plane's movement on three axes. In conventional aircraft, changes of altitude - climbing and descent - are achieved by moving the nose up or down (on the pitch axis) by means of elevators. Directional control (on the yaw axis) is provided by the rudder, while lateral control (on the roll axis) is effected by trailing-edge flaps called ailerons.
Aircraft (4 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Aircraft controls
Airplanes and gliders are controlled in the longitudinal (pitch) axis by elevators on the tailplane, or by having a fully powered pivoted tailplane. A few modern designs have a foreplane instead of a tailplane, and a very few have both. Directional control is provided by a vertical rudder, which is usually located on the tailplane as well. The rudder is also an important control surface if a multi-engined aircraft should suffer failure of an engine mounted far out on a wing.
Lateral (roll) control was formerly provided only by ailerons - pivoted portions of the trailing edge near the tips of the wings - but today roll control can be effected by asymmetric use of the tailplanes or by asymmetric deflection of spoilers. The spoilers are door-like surfaces hinged along the top of the wing. Differentially they control roll, and symmetrically they serve as airbrakes by increasing drag. Spoilers can also be used in direct lift control to enable the aircraft trajectory to be varied up or down without changing the attitude of the fuselage. On landing, spoilers act as 'lift dumpers', instantly killing wing lift and thus increasing the weight on the wheels and the effectiveness of the brakes.
All early aircraft used cables in tension or push/pull pivoted rods to convey pilot commands to the control surfaces. From about 1950 powered controls were widely introduced, in which the surfaces were moved by hydraulic actuators, the pilot's controls being provided with some form of artificial 'feel' so that he could sense what was happening. By 1970 fly by wire was rapidly becoming common, in which the pilot's controls send out small electrical signals, which are carried through multiple wires to the surface power units. Today fly by light is being introduced: pilot signals are conveyed as variable light output along optical fibers thus offering colossal bandwidth and data-handling capacity.
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Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 4)
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p350-5
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Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 5)
ftsTitle
Pilot's-eye view of a modern fighter cockpit (F-16C). Several advanced systems are used to reduce the pilot's workload, including a wide-angle holographic display and keyboard, to project data onto the see-through screen above the instrument console. The control stick is on the pilot's right-hand side; the backward-tilted seat and raised heel line enable him to tolerate high g-forces.
Aircraft (5 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
The high-lift system
An aircraft has to work hardest during take-off and landing, when airspeed is at its lowest and yet maximum lift is required. To facilitate these maneuvers, most aircraft have a high-lift system, brought into action for the approach and landing, and usually also for take-off.
Along the leading edge of the wing there may be slats, slender portions of the wing moved out and away on parallel arms, or alternatively Kreger flaps, which swing down and around from underneath the leading edge. These full-span devices greatly increase the available lift, especially from a thin wing suitable for fast jets.
Along the trailing edge are fitted flaps. These again come in many forms, but all swing back and down from the wing. When selected to a take-off setting, such as 15 deg, they increase lift and slightly in-crease drag; when fully down, at the landing setting of perhaps 40 deg, they increase lift even more but also greatly increase drag.
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p350-6
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 6)
ftsTitle
Russia's latest jet fighter the SU-35 is shown in action at an air show in Kubinka Russia.
Aircraft (6 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Aircraft propulsion
Until 1939 virtually all airplanes were powered by piston engines driving a propeller, which provides thrust by accelerating air through aerodynamic rotating blades. Almost all modern propellers are of the variable-pitch type - the angle at which the blades attack the air can be altered. The blades are set to fine pitch for take-off to match high engine speed with low aircraft speed, and then automatically adjusted to coarse pitch for cruising flight, to match economical low engine speed to high forward speed. After landing, some propellers can be set to reverse pitch to help brake the aircraft.
During World War II, engines grew rapidly in power. The Spitfire Mk I, for example, had a two-blade propeller, while the Mk XIV had five blades, in order to absorb the increased power within the limited available propeller diameter. Today some turboprop airliners have six-blade propellers, turning at relatively low speed for minimum noise.
During and after World War II, the propeller gave way to the turbojet for most purposes. The turbojet itself was largely eclipsed by the turbofan, which offers better fuel economy and reduced noise levels.
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
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Outline
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Jet fighter the SU-35
**++*
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p350-7
ftsTitleOverride
Aircraft 2: How Aircraft Work
(page 7)
ftsTitle
The Stealth Fighter. The shape and materials used to make the Stealth Fighter have made it almost undetectable to hostile radars and other sensors. The low, flat shape was designed to reflect radar energy in directions other than back to the radar.
Aircraft (7 of 7)
2. How Aircraft Work
Helicopters and autogyros
A helicopter is lifted by a rotor (sometimes two rotors), which is constructed of between two and eight slender blades, which effectively act as rotating wings. Lift is created as the rotor is driven round under power, forcing the air obliquely downwards. Because the rotor can create lift even when the aircraft itself is stationary, a helicopter is able to hover, and to take off and land vertically. In forward flight, the airflow through the rotor is complex. In order that the greater lift produced by the advancing blade does not destabilize the aircraft, the blades are hinged at the rotorhead, so that they flap up and down once every revolution.
An autogyro has no mechanical drive to the rotor (except sometimes to pre-spin it), but uses a separate propulsion system, usually driving a propeller. This propels the machine forward, the airflow through the rotor causing it to spin of its own accord. The air flows obliquely up through the rotor disc.
* ENGINES
* AIRCRAFT 1
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The Motorcar 1: Development (page 1)
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The Benz Motorwagen (1885), the first practical petrol-driven car. It developed less than one brake horsepower and could achieve no more than 16 km/h (10 mph).
The Motorcar (1 of 6)
1. Development
A motorcar can be defined as a passenger-carrying road vehicle powered by an internal-combustion engine. As such, its history extends for little over a century. However, such vehicles owe much both to the steam-powered vehicles that preceded them and to the horse-and-carriage. Features essential to the success of the motorcar, including wheels, axles, spokes and suspension systems, had all been developed and improved in earlier types of road vehicle. It was only when these features were linked to the recently developed four-stroke engine that a motorcar similar in essentials to its modern counterpart could emerge.
In late 1885 the German inventor Karl Benz (1844-1929) announced his Motorwagen, a single-cylinder, petrol-engined tricycle. Although the immediate impact of this invention was not great, its significance cannot be overestimated. Within 10 years, dozens of manufacturers had appeared; the first motor race - the 1895 Paris-Bordeaux-Paris race - had been run; and the rich were buying cars both as status symbols and as a means of transportation.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Outline
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The Motorcar 1: Development (page 2)
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Model T Fords at Ford's first moving assembly line, located at Highland Park, Michigan. This photograph, taken in around 1913-14, shows the use of the exterior of the building for lowering the body onto the chassis.
The Motorcar (2 of 6)
1. Development
er pace. Within 10 years, the 'horseless carriage' had replaced the horse as the preferred form of transport - at least for those who could afford it. The awkward tiller steering with which the first cars were equipped was abandoned in favor of the steering wheel, which was much easier to operate. Engines grew in size and the speed of the fastest cars was now well in excess of what any team of horses could muster. Even the cynics who had dismissed the car as a passing craze were beginning to realize that the day of horse-drawn vehicles was nearing its end.
A major landmark in the history of the car came in 1906, when Rolls-Royce produced the 'Silver Ghost'. A seven-liter, six-cylinder luxury tourer, it was capable of traveling practically unlimited distances with complete reliability, often at speeds of over 100 km/h (62.5 mph). At the same time it offered unrivaled comfort, looks and quietness.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
Outline
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The Motorcar 1: Development (page 3)
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The Mini. Following the Suez Crisis of 1956, petrol rationing led to a demand for smaller cars, and BMC's chairman asked Alec Issigonis to design the smallest possible car that could still carry four adults and luggage. The result was the Mini, launched as the Morris Mini Minor /Austin 7 in 1959 and still in production today. It established the engine and transmission layout used by almost all subsequent small cars.
The Motorcar (3 of 6)
1. Development
Mass production
Up until 1908, the car had been very much the toy of the rich, far beyond the reach of the less affluent. In October 1908, this situation was dramatically changed by the American industrialist Henry Ford (1863-1947), with the introduction of mass-production. Instead of individually hand-crafting each car, he designed a car - the famous Model T Ford - that could be made on a production line with standardized parts. Available only in a single color (black), each car came off the line in around 90 minutes. More than 15 million Model Ts were made in its 19-year career, many being sold for as little as $250. By the start of the 1920s, every major manufacturing country had started to produce cars for general transport, rather than for the use of a privileged minority.
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* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
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The Motorcar 1: Development (page 4)
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The Audi Quattro, when it was first introduced in 1980, became the first mass-production saloon car with permanent four-wheel drive. This capability, combined with its 5-cylinder 2144 cc turbocharged engine, made it a highly successful rally car.
The Motorcar (4 of 6)
1. Development
The age of innovation
Many of the features that make modern cars comfortable and safe were developed in the years between the launch of the Model T and the start of World War II.
Independent front suspension, which no modern family car would be without, was first introduced in a practical form on the 1922 Lancia Lambda, although it was not common practice to fit such systems until after 1945. Supercharging was pioneered in the 1920s by Mercedes, who also put the first diesel-engined production car on the road in 1936, in the form of the Mercedes-Benz 260D. The French company Citron produced the first successful front-wheel-drive car in 1934, when it launched the Traction Avant; today, over half the cars in the world use their front wheels to transmit power to the ground.
The evolution of the car progressed rapidly up until 1939, but during World War II the pace of innovation slowed dramatically. The only real advance at this time was the further development of four-wheel drive in the form of the Jeep, which - thanks to its power being driven through all four wheels - could traverse terrain that would be unpassable in a normal car. After the war, manufacturers found themselves turning out 10-year-old designs; it was only as the 1950s approached that innovation began to return.
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The Motorcar 1: Development (page 5)
ftsTitle
Modern car design includes features such as independent front suspension, front wheel drive, anti-lock brakes, and improved fuel economy.
The Motorcar (5 of 6)
1. Development
Modern cars
In August 1959, Austin Morris launched the Mini Minor, which has profoundly influenced all subsequent small-car design. By mounting the engine across the chassis, its Greek-born designer, Sir Alexander Issigonis (1906-88), created a small car with more interior space than many large saloons of the day. The Mini also used the then relatively unusual technology of front-wheel drive, which obviated the need for a bulky transmission tunnel in the car. Today virtually all small cars use this layout. Cars have now evolved to the extent that most can reach speeds in excess of 160 km/h (100 mph) and achieve over 50 km(31 mi) per gallon. At the same time standards of reliability have improved dramatically, so that cars generally give thousands of kilometers of trouble-free motoring - and all for a fraction of the money it would have cost (in real terms) to buy an equivalent car in the 1920s. At the upper end of the market, many cars are turbocharged, fuel-injected, have four-wheel drive and are capable of around 240 km/h (150 mph).
In recent years Japanese cars have made the greatest technical progress, and the Far East is now the world-leader in engine-design. US manufacturers have had trouble shedding their reputation for producing 'gas-guzzlers', but are now designing economy-conscious cars with greater international appeal. Europe, the traditional breeding ground of car innovation and design, will have to change direction as the car evolves further.
The move is now towards cars that give out less toxic waste and do less damage to the environment. This has led in many countries to legislation enforcing the use on cars of catalytic converters, which detoxify many of the harmful substances in the exhaust gases. However, concern about the burning of fossil fuels and the consequent environmental damage is sure to continue, and it seems clear that the car will have to change radically in the coming decades if it is to survive.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
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p352-6
ftsTitleOverride
The Motorcar 1: Development (page 6)
ftsTitle
The Jaguar XJ220 (1989) goes from 0 to 97 kmh (60 mph) in 3.5 seconds, and can reach a maximum speed of 322 kmh (200 mph).
The Motorcar (6 of 6)
1. Development
PERFORMANCE AND POWER
The performance of a car is normally assessed on the basis of its top speed and its acceleration - how fast it can go and how long it takes to reach a given speed. The power of a car's engine may be expressed in several ways. The power (as a physical quantity - the rate at which mechanical work is done) may be expressed in brake horsepower or kilowatts (1 bhp being equivalent to 0.746 kW).
The power and the performance of a car are sometimes confused, but one is not always a
reliable guide to the other. Even with a seemingly advantageous power-to-mass ratio, the performance of a vehicle is largely dependent on how effectively its power is developed and then delivered to the wheels.
Basically, the efficiency of an engine depends on the mass of fuel-oxygen mixture that can be pumped through it and effectively combusted in a given period of time. This factor is known as the volumetric efficiency.
To this end a number of systems have been developed to increase the power output of engines without increasing their size. For example, supercharging and turbocharging both force the fuel-air mixture into the combustion chamber at high pressure. Multi-valve cylinder heads have also been developed to improve the volumetric efficiency or breathing' of an engine.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 2
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The Motorcar (1 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
The engine is the power unit of a car, providing the motion that is ultimately transmitted to the driven wheels. However, a series of interconnected mechanisms, including the clutch, the gearbox and the differential, is required to transmit the power of the engine to the wheels in a usable form.
At the same time, a number of subsidiary systems, including steering and brakes, are necessary in order to give adequate control over the movement of the car.
Most cars today are fitted with an overhead-valve, four-stroke, petrol engine, with four or six cylinders. Although the primary function of the engine is to spin the flywheel - the first link in the chain by which the engine's power is transmitted to the wheels - the rotary motion of the crankshaft is also used to turn the alternator, which generates the current needed by the car's electrical systems. At the same time, the rotation of the camshaft - again dependent on the crankshaft - drives both the oil pump and the distributor.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
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p354-2
The Motorcar (2 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
The ignition system
The purpose of the ignition system is to produce a spark of sufficient strength to ignite the petrol-air mixture at the exact moment when each piston in turn is nearly at the top of the compression stroke. The spark is produced as an electric current jumps (arcs) between the two electrodes of a spark plug; however, the voltage supplied by the battery is insufficient for this purpose. The voltage from the battery is first boosted by the coil to around 15 000 volts before passing to the distributor, in which a spinning rotor (driven by the camshaft) directs the current to each spark plug in turn.
The fuel system
For efficient and economical combustion within the engine, the precise proportions of petrol and air in the fuel mixture entering the cylinders must be carefully regulated. This is generally achieved by a carburetor. Although different types of carburetor exist, nearly all are in the form of a tube into which air is drawn by the downward movement of the pistons on their successive induction strokes. As the air accelerates through the narrowed middle section of the carburetor, its pressure falls, so causing a jet of fuel to be drawn through a nozzle from a reservoir, which is itself fed by a pump from the petrol tank. Within the carburetor, on the engine-side of the fuel jet, a circular flap (known as a butterfly valve) is actuated by the accelerator pedal in such a way as to control the volume of air-fuel mixture drawn into the engine, thus regulating engine speed. In most designs, a similar valve (the choke) on the air-intake side of the fuel jet regulates the amount of air entering the carburetor and thus the richness of the fuel mix.
Increasingly, direct fuel-injection is being used in place of the carburetor. This is more efficient and economical than the carburetor, since accurately metered and appropriate amounts of fuel can be delivered to each cylinder's combustion chamber. There are several systems - both mechanical and electrical - but the basic principle is that fuel is injected at high pressure into the combustion chamber from a point behind the inlet valve.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
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The Motorcar 2: How Cars Work (page 2)
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p354-3
The Motorcar (3 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
Transmission
The term 'transmission' embraces all the components that are responsible for transferring the engine's power from the flywheel to the driven wheels. The spinning motion of the flywheel is transmitted to the gearbox via the clutch. When the clutch pedal is depressed, the spinning flywheel is disconnected from the shaft transmitting power to the gearbox, so allowing the car to move off gently and smooth gear-changes to be made.
A gearbox is necessary because - unlike (say) an electric motor - most internal-combustion engines develop their full power and torque (turning effort) within a relatively narrow band of engine speeds (usually between 3000 and 5000 revolutions per minute). By means of the gearbox (and partly by the differential; see below), the engine speed is kept within these limits while allowing the car to operate at widely varying speeds and in a wide range of driving conditions.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
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p354-4
The Motorcar (4 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
For example, a steep hill requires a low gear, because it is only at high engine speeds that the engine is able to deliver enough torque to keep the wheels turning. On the other hand, where little torque is required, as when traveling at speed on a level road, a high gear may be used, thus matching high road speed with (relatively) low engine speed. In this way engine life is prolonged, passenger comfort enhanced and fuel consumption kept to a minimum.
* ENGINES
* OIL AND GAS
* THE MOTORCAR 1
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p354-5
The Motorcar (5 of 5)
2. How Cars Work
After passing through the gearbox-and-clutch assembly, the drive is transferred to the differential. In front-wheel-drive cars, transmission from gearbox to differential is direct; in rear-wheel-drive cars, if the engine is mounted at the front of the car, the differential is driven by a crown wheel and pinion at the end of a propeller shaft.
The rotation rate of the shaft from the gearbox is further stepped down by the differential (normally to about a quarter of the gearbox speed). However, the differential's distinctive function is to allow power to be divided between the driven wheels in whatever proportion is required. Such a mechanism is necessary when cornering, because the outside driven wheel needs to be turned more rapidly than the inside wheel.
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Weaponry (page 1)
ftsTitle
A French crossbow of the early 16th century.
Weaponry (1 of 7)
Throughout recorded history, man has searched for ways to gain advantage over his opponents on the field of battle. As new weapons have been developed, countermeasures have been sought, so invariably initiating further change. The result is a pendulum, swinging between opponents in terms of advantage and accelerating as technological expertise has grown.
Until the 14th century, technology played a limited role in warfare. Before then, weapons were little more than hunting tools - spears, axes, sling-shots and swords - put to a different use. Technology was confined to weapons that depended on tension to project missiles over distance. An early example was the Roman ballista, a catapult that used ropes to pull back a wooden pivot, the release of which threw large rocks against enemy defenses. The same principle was used by the longbow and the more mechanical crossbow, both dependent on human muscle to tauten a string, which projected an arrow when released.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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Weaponry (page 2)
ftsTitle
A set of imperial flintlock pistols (1732)
Weaponry (2 of 7)
Early firearms
The real breakthrough came with the use of gunpowder to provide projectile power. Invented by the Chinese, gunpowder is a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur and charcoal, which - when ignited in an enclosed space - explodes. A weapon was produced when this explosion took place in a tube closed at one end, with a projectile, such as a ball or a bullet, introduced at the other end. The result was the gun, examples of which were in use in European armies by the 1320s.
Although early guns were not very accurate, improvements came steadily, and by the late 17th century the flintlock had appeared. A soldier armed with a flintlock musket would bite the end off a paper cartridge, empty a small amount of powder into the pan above the trigger, tip the remainder down the barrel, add a ball and the cartridge case as wadding, ram it tight and cock the weapon. When he pulled the trigger, a piece of flint struck a 'steel' that covered the pan to produce sparks, which ignited the main charge and sent the ball out of the barrel at speed. Cannon worked on the same principle, except that a match needed to be applied to the touch-hole to produce the explosion.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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p356-3
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 3)
ftsTitle
In the second half of the 19th century, muzzle-loaded rifles were replaced by weapons in which a cartridge fed from a magazine was loaded into the breech by working a bolt. Such bolt-action rifles remained standard infantry issue until generally displaced by automatic weapons after World War II.
As the bolt is withdrawn, a cartridge is fed by the spring-loaded magazine into line with the bolt.
As it is pushed forward, the bolt engages with the cartridge and moves it into the breech.
In the final stage of the forward movement of the bolt, a protruding piece of the bolt assembly catches the trigger sear, so cocking the weapon. The bolt is rotated to lock the cartridge in the breech. The weapon can now be fired by pressure on the trigger.
When the bolt is released and drawn backwards, a claw on the bolt engages with the rim of the spent cartridge, so removing it from the breech. Once clear, the cartridge is ejected.
Weaponry (3 of 7)
Breech-loaded weapons
Major changes occurred in the 19th century. In the 1830s the flintlock began to be replaced by percussion firing, where by a hammer struck a detonator to produce the necessary spark. This allowed the development of self-contained cartridges, comprising detonator, gunpowder and projectile. This in turn dispensed with the need for muzzle-loading and led to the introduction of breech-loaded weapons, in which the cartridge was fed directly into the breech, or firing chamber.
By the 1880s breech-loading had been refined to incorporate the use of magazines, each containing a number of cartridges, fed into the breech as the soldier worked a bolt. Artillery also benefited from these developments, using self-contained breech-loaded shells that could be fired rapidly one after another. The invention of smokeless powder, such as cordite, also allowed firing to take place from concealed positions.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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Rifles, breech loading
CaptionText
Rifles, breech loading
**++*
p356-4
ftsTitleOverride
Weaponry (page 4)
ftsTitle
A French missile launcher, Vag HOT, being launched during a training exercise in Saudi Arabia just before the Gulf War (1991). These anti-tank missiles were first introduced in the 1970s to be mounted on vehicles and helicopters. The current version has a range of 4572 m(15000 ft) and a 150-mm warhead capable of penetrating over 40 inches of armor.
Weaponry (4 of 7)
Automatic weapons
In terms of infantry weapons, the logical next step was to eliminate the working of the bolt by hand, by harnessing the explosive action of the gun to do the job automatically. Early machine guns such as the Maxim did this by using the recoil of the weapon to open the breech, eject the used cartridge and feed the next one in.
In other designs, automatic loading was achieved by diverting gases produced by the explosion back into the weapon. Experiments during World War I enabled the same system to be incorporated into much lighter weapons, producing the sub-machine gun and, eventually, the automatic rifle. Modern assault rifles such as the British SA-80 and the Soviet AK-47 work on this principle (known as 'blow-back') and give the ordinary soldier unprecedented firepower.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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p356-5
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Weaponry (page 5)
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A British World War I tank
Weaponry (5 of 7)
Tank warfare
On the ground, the face of battle was changed by the introduction of the tank and its antidotes. The tank was invented by the British in 1915 as an armored caterpillar-tracked machine designed to cross the mud and trenches of a World War I battlefield.
The tank was later developed into a war-winning weapon by the Germans, who recognized its potential to break through enemy lines and produce rear-area paralysis. Blitzkrieg ('lightning war'), dependent on a mixture of mobility and air support, was effective in the early years of World War II, but was slowly countered by new technology. Tanks proved vulnerable to other tanks, especially those armed with bigger guns and special anti-tank shells. Infantry soldiers were also equipped to deal with the threat, using spring-loaded weapons such as the British PIAT ('projectile, infantry, anti-tank') or the German Panzerfaust.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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p356-6
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Weaponry (page 6)
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Most modern automatic rifles work on the 'blow-back' principle, in which gases produced by the explosion of the propellant charge within the weapon are diverted to work the bolt automatically.
Some of the expanding gases within the barrel are drawn off through a port near the muzzle into a cylinder, where they force back a piston against the pressure of a spring.
The bolt-and-hammer mechanism is pushed backwards by the cylinder, removing the spent cartridge from the breech as it does so. Once clear, the empty cartridge is ejected.
As the cylinder moves forward under the action of the spring, a fresh cartridge from the spring-loaded magazine is forced into the breech.
Weaponry (6 of 7)
Long-range warfare
During the two World Wars the ability to hit distant targets improved dramatically, culminating in the development of pilotless bombs and surface-to-surface missiles - the German V1 and V2 weapons.
The V1 was a pulse-jet powered machine, fired from a special ramp towards its target, which it hit when it ran out of fuel. The US-produced Cruise missile of the 1970s owed its origins to V1, but was far more sophisticated. It incorporated an on-board 'terrain contour-matching (TERCOM) guidance system', which 'read' the ground over which the missile was flying, compared it to a pre-set computer memory, and corrected the flight path to ensure pin-point accuracy.
The V2 had a liquid-fueled rocket engine that burned for about 70 seconds, during which the missile shot vertically to an altitude of 96 km (60 mi). It then fell back to Earth in a predetermined arc, hitting its target at a speed of 3840 km/h (2386 mph). It was the forerunner of the nuclear-armed ballistic missiles of the modern era.
* ARMAMENT AND DISARMAMENT
* SHIPS
* AIRCRAFT
* HELLENISTIC ARMIES
* THE ROMAN ARMY
* MEDIEVAL ARMOUR
* MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE WAR AND FORTIFICATION
* NAPOLEON'S MILITARY REVOLUTION
* WORLD WAR I
* WORLD WAR II
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Automatic rifles
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p356-7
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Weaponry (page 7)
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An ALCM (Air Launched Cruise Missile) is launched from a B-52.
Weaponry (7 of 7)
Since 1945 missiles have been preferred both for anti-tank and for anti-aircraft roles. By the early 1970s, wire-guided anti-tank missiles such as the Soviet AT-3 Sagger and British Swingfire had been developed, being fired towards the target and guided onto it by electronic signals transmitted down a command wire trailing behind. Since then, the wire has been discarded and the missile fired down a pre-set laser beam: the missile has a sensor in its nose, which - when locked onto the beam - carries it unerringly to its destination.
Current developments take this further, with the on-board sensor homing in on infrared or heat emissions from the target. As such missiles will seek out their own targets, they are known as 'fire-and- forget' weapons. Similar developments have affected surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), which are designed to home in on the heat and light emitted by the jet exhausts of modern aircraft.
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